TOPIC: SOIL COMPOSITION AND METHODS OF ITS ANALYSIS

The soil is a mixture that contains minerals, organic matter, and living organisms. But broadly speaking,
soil can refer to any loose sediment. The layer of the earth that is composed of soil and is influenced by
the process of soil formation is called pedosphere. The soil consists of 45% minerals, 50% empty spaces
or voids and 5% organic matter.

SOIL COMPOSITION:

Soil composition refers to the combination of different materials that make up soil. These materials
include:

1. Mineral Particles: These are inorganic materials derived from the weathering of rocks. They are
classified into three categories based on size:

o Sand (coarse particles, 0.05-2.00 mm in diameter)

o Silt (medium-sized particles, 0.002-0.05 mm in diameter)

o Clay (fine particles, less than 0.002 mm in diameter)

2. Organic Matter: This includes decomposed plant and animal material, which enriches the soil
with nutrients and improves its structure.

3. Water: Soil contains varying amounts of water, which fills the spaces between soil particles. The
amount of water affects the soil's ability to support plant growth.

4. Air: Pore spaces in the soil that are not filled with water are filled with air, which is essential for
root respiration and the survival of soil organisms.

5. Microorganisms: Soil is home to a diverse community of microorganisms, including bacteria,

fungi, and protozoa, which play a crucial role in nutrient cycling and organic matter
decomposition.

METHODS OF ANALYSIS:

1. Texture Analysis (Feeling the Soil)

• Sand, Silt, and Clay: By rubbing a small amount of moist soil between your fingers, you can
get a sense of its texture. Sandy soils feel gritty, clay soils feel sticky, and silty soils feel smooth.

2. pH Testing (Checking Soil Acidity)

• pH Strips or Meters: You can use pH strips or a simple pH meter to see if the soil is acidic,
neutral, or alkaline. This affects how well plants can absorb nutrients.

3. Nutrient Testing (Checking for Plant Food)

Prepared By: Ms. Harman Jot Kaur(Asst. Professor)

 • Soil Test Kits: These kits can be bought at garden stores and used to measure key nutrients like
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. You mix soil with water and use color charts to see the
results.

4. Soil Moisture (How Wet or Dry the Soil Is)

• Hand Squeeze Test: Grab a handful of soil and squeeze it. If it forms a ball that breaks apart
easily, it has the right moisture level. If it crumbles, it's too dry, and if it stays in a tight ball, it’s
too wet.

5. Organic Matter (How Much Dead Stuff is in the Soil)

• Look for Dark Color: Soils rich in organic matter are usually darker. You can also use simple
chemical tests to measure it.

6. Visual Inspection (Looking at Soil)

• Color and Structure: Just by looking at soil, you can tell a lot. Dark, crumbly soil is usually
healthy. Pale, compacted soil might need improvement.

7. X-ray Fluorescence (XRD): Identifies minerals present in soil.

8. Thermal analysis: Measures changes in soil properties as it heats up, providing information on
composition and structure.

9. Water content analysis: Measures the amount of water in soil.

Prepared By: Ms. Harman Jot Kaur(Asst. Professor)

TOPIC: WATER ANALYSIS METHODS FOR DO, BOD, COD

Here's a simplified explanation of water analysis methods for Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (BOD), and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):

1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

• What It Measures: The amount of oxygen dissolved in water, which is essential for the
survival of aquatic life.
• Method:
o DO Meter: A probe is placed in the water to measure the oxygen level directly. This is
the most common method.
o Winkler Method: A chemical method where reagents are added to a water sample,
causing a color change that indicates the DO level. The intensity of the color is then
measured to determine the DO.

2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

• What It Measures: The amount of oxygen that microorganisms need to break down organic
matter in water over a specific time period (usually 5 days). High BOD indicates a lot of organic
pollution.
• Method:
o BOD Test: A water sample is placed in a sealed bottle and incubated at 20°C for 5 days.
The DO is measured before and after incubation. The difference in DO levels indicates
the BOD.
o BOD Bottle Incubation: Special BOD bottles are used to prevent oxygen from
entering or leaving the sample during the incubation period.

Prepared By: Ms. Harman Jot Kaur(Asst. Professor)

3. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is a measure of how much oxygen is needed to break
down all the chemicals in water, both good and bad.
• Imagine you have a pond. If there are a lot of chemicals or pollutants in the water, it takes
more oxygen to break them down. COD tells us how "hungry" the water is for oxygen
because of these chemicals.
• High COD means there are a lot of substances in the water that could use up oxygen,
which is bad for fish and other aquatic life that need oxygen to survive. So, COD helps us
understand if the water is clean or polluted.
• Method:
o Reagent Test (Chemical Reaction)
o What It Does: You add a strong chemical (like potassium dichromate)
to a water sample. This chemical reacts with the pollutants in the water,
breaking them down.
o How It Works: The more pollutants there are, the more of the chemical
is used up. By measuring how much of the chemical is consumed, we
can figure out how much oxygen would be needed to break down those
pollutants.
o Steps:
▪ Take a sample of water.
▪ Add the chemical reagent.
▪ Heat the sample to speed up the reaction.
▪ Measure how much of the chemical was used up.

Prepared By: Ms. Harman Jot Kaur(Asst. Professor)

o Colorimetric Method (Color Change)
o What It Does: After the chemical reaction, the water sample changes
color depending on how much pollution is present.
o How It Works: The more pollutants, the darker the color. A device
called a colorimeter measures the color intensity to give a COD value.
o Steps:
▪ After adding the reagent and heating, observe the color change.
▪ Use a colorimeter to measure how dark the color is.
▪ The result tells you the COD level.

Prepared By: Ms. Harman Jot Kaur(Asst. Professor)

TOPIC: WATER ANALYSIS METHODS FOR PH, TDS, TURBIDITY, SALINITY, AND
ALKALINITY

1. pH

Definition: pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water. It indicates the concentration of hydrogen
ions (H⁺) in the water. A pH less than 7 indicates acidic water, a pH of 7 is neutral, and a pH greater than
7 indicates alkaline (basic) water. It affects chemical reactions, aquatic life, and the solubility of nutrients.

Methods:

1. pH Meter: Electronic device providing accurate readings.

2. pH Test Strips: Color-changing strips that indicate pH range.

3. Titration: Using a strong acid/base to determine pH through neutralization.

2. TDS (Total Dissolved Solids)

Definition: TDS refers to the total concentration of dissolved substances in water, including salts,
minerals, and organic matter. It is typically expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or parts per million
(ppm). High TDS can affect water quality and taste, and it can indicate the presence of pollutants.

Methods:

1. Conductivity Meter: Measures electrical conductivity; higher conductivity indicates higher TDS.

2. Gravimetric Method: Evaporate a known volume of water and weigh the residue.

Prepared By: Ms. Harman Jot Kaur(Asst. Professor)

 Conductivity Meter

Gravimetric Meter

3. Turbidity

Definition: Turbidity measures the clarity of water and is caused by suspended particles such as
sediments, algae, and microorganisms. High turbidity can indicate pollution and can harm aquatic
ecosystems by reducing light penetration and affecting photosynthesis.

Methods:

1. Turbidimeter: Measures the amount of light scattered by particles in the water.

2. Secchi Disk: A simple tool; measure the depth at which the disk disappears in the water.

Turbidimeter Secchi Disk

4. Salinity

Definition: Salinity measures the concentration of salts in water, usually expressed in parts per thousand
(ppt) or grams per liter (g/L). It is important for understanding water chemistry, especially in marine
environments, as it affects aquatic organisms and their habitats.

Methods:

Prepared By: Ms. Harman Jot Kaur(Asst. Professor)

1. Conductivity Meter: Correlates conductivity with salinity levels. (diagram already shown above)

2. Refractometer: Measures the bending of light in a water sample; used in seawater analysis.

5. Alkalinity

Definition: Alkalinity is the capacity of water to neutralize acids, primarily due to the presence of
bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides. It indicates the buffering capacity of water, which helps
maintain stable pH levels. Alkalinity is crucial for aquatic life, as it protects against sudden changes in
acidity.

Methods:

1. Titration: Add a strong acid (like HCl) to a water sample and measure the volume required to reach a
specific pH endpoint (usually pH 4.5).

2. Indicator Methods: Use of pH indicators that change color at specific alkalinity levels.

Prepared By: Ms. Harman Jot Kaur(Asst. Professor)

 Titration

Summary
- pH: Indicates acidity/alkalinity; measured using meters, strips, or titration.

- TDS: Total dissolved solids; measured via conductivity or gravimetric methods.

- Turbidity: Cloudiness; measured with turbidimeters or Secchi disks.

- Salinity: Salt concentration; measured using conductivity meters or refractometers.

- Alkalinity: Neutralizing capacity; determined through titration methods.

These methods are essential for assessing water quality and ensuring it meets safety standards for
drinking and ecological health.

Prepared By: Ms. Harman Jot Kaur(Asst. Professor)

TOPIC: INFORMATION ABOUT ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS- P.M-10, P.M- 2.5, NO2 ,O3

1. PM-10 (Particulate Matter 10 micrometers or less)

PM10 refers to "particulate matter" with a diameter of 10 micrometers or less. These tiny particles can be
inhaled and may cause various health issues, particularly respiratory problems. PM10 includes dust,
pollen, smoke, and liquid droplets, originating from sources like vehicle emissions, industrial processes,
construction activities, and natural events like wildfires. Because of their small size, PM10 can penetrate
deep into the lungs, making them a concern for air quality and public health.

- Sources:

Dust, pollen, mold spores, vehicle emissions, construction activities, and industrial processes.

- Health Effects:

Can penetrate the respiratory system, causing respiratory issues, cardiovascular problems, and
aggravating existing health conditions.

2. PM- 2.5 (Particulate Matter 2.5 micrometers or less)

PM2.5 refers to "particulate matter" with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or smaller. These fine particles
are so small that they can penetrate deep into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream, leading to serious
health issues. PM2.5 is primarily produced from sources like vehicle emissions, industrial processes,
combustion of fossil fuels, and some natural sources like wildfires.

Due to their size and composition, PM2.5 can contribute to various health problems, including respiratory
diseases, heart disease, and exacerbation of conditions like asthma. Monitoring PM2.5 levels is crucial for
public health and environmental protection.

- Sources:

Combustion processes (e.g., vehicles, power plants, residential heating), industrial emissions, and
secondary formation from chemical reactions in the atmosphere.

- Health Effects:

More harmful than PM10 due to their ability to penetrate deeper into the lungs and enter the bloodstream,
leading to serious health issues like heart attacks, strokes, and lung diseases.

3. NO2 (Nitrogen Dioxide)

NO2 stands for nitrogen dioxide, a reddish-brown gas with a characteristic sharp, biting odor. It is a
significant air pollutant and is primarily produced from the combustion of fossil fuels, such as in vehicles,
power plants, and industrial processes.

- Sources:

Combustion of fossil fuels (e.g., from vehicles, power plants, and industrial facilities).

Prepared By: Ms. Harman Jot Kaur(Asst. Professor)

- Health Effects:

Can irritate airways in the human respiratory system, contribute to the development of asthma, and lower
resistance to respiratory infections.

4. O3 (Ozone)

Ozone (O3) is a colorless gas composed of three oxygen atoms. It naturally occurs in the Earth's
stratosphere, where it forms the ozone layer, which protects life by absorbing the majority of the sun's
harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

Key points about Ozone:

• Stratospheric Ozone: This is the "good" ozone that forms the ozone layer, protecting against UV
radiation.

• Tropospheric Ozone: This is "bad" ozone found at ground level, formed when sunlight reacts
with pollutants like volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). It is a major
component of smog.

- Sources:

Not directly emitted; formed in the atmosphere from chemical reactions involving sunlight.

- Health Effects:

Can cause or worsen respiratory issues, decrease lung function, and exacerbate conditions like asthma and
bronchitis.

These pollutants are key indicators of air quality and have significant implications for public health and
the environment. Monitoring and regulating their levels is crucial for reducing health risks and improving
overall air quality.

Prepared By: Ms. Harman Jot Kaur(Asst. Professor)