CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

SYSTEM

1. What is wireless communication?

The term ‘wireless’ clearly means a device without the presence of wires or cables.
Speaking of communication, it broadly means transmitting information from the sender to the
receiver. In a wide-ranging sense, wireless communication technology involves the transfer of
data with the help of electromagnetic waves. This mechanism carries signals anywhere between
a few meters or a thousand kilometers. For instance, from a TV remote control to satellite
communication.
Wireless communication is the transmission of information over a distance without
using wires or cables or any other forms of electrical conductors.

In the wireless network, there is no physical medium of communication. The

electromagnet waves, which include X-Rays, Gamma Rays, Visible Light, Ultraviolet Rays,
Infrared Rays, Radio Waves and Microwave Rays, pass on the signal with the electromagnetic
energy.
2. How does wireless communication work?
The wireless communication network works based on these electromagnetic signals,
which are broadcasted through a device. The sending device must have the potential to
propagate wireless signals and the receiving device should be capable of capturing the sent
signals. Only then does the wireless communication system get created between the receiver
and sender. The communication network has various forms and methods- Mobile, Bluetooth,
Broadcast radio, Wi-Fi, Infrared communication and more. All these wireless network
examples work differently, but the common factor remains, i.e. without any wired connection.

 Transmission:

 Information, like voice or data, is converted into an electromagnetic signal by a device (e.g.,
a mobile phone). This signal is sent out via an antenna.

 Propagation:

 The electromagnetic waves travel through the air. These waves can pass through different
mediums like air, vacuum, and even solid objects.

 Reception:

 Another device with an antenna captures these electromagnetic waves. The antenna is tuned
to receive signals of specific frequencies.

 Conversion:

 The receiving device converts the electromagnetic signal back into the original information
(voice or data). This involves demodulation, which extracts the useful data from the received
signal.

3. Explain the Types of Wireless Communication.

1. Infrared Communication
It is involved in short-range communication like data sharing on mobile, TV remotes, tablets,
personal computers (keyboards) etc. This wireless network example, in particular, can only be
used for short-range, i.e. 300GHz – 400THz. The IR communication functions only when the
sender and the receiver have an exchange of a light beam. Any disruption in it will cause the
photoreceiver not to receive the signal. This also means that any object between the receiver
and the transmitter will cause a non-operation.

For successful infrared communication, a photo LED transmitter and a photodiode receptor are
required. The LED transmitter transmits the IR signal in the form of nonvisible light, that is
captured and saved by the photoreceptor. So the information between the source and the target
is transferred in this way. The source and destination can be mobile phones, TVs, security
systems, laptops, etc support wireless communication.

2. Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi also works as two-way communication and is used by several electronic devices
like smartphones, laptops and smart TV. In this process, the signal transmission works based
on a router. So, the network allows uninterrupted usage when in close proximity to a router. A
range of devices can be connected to one network at high speed. The only concern is that the
Wi-Fi network must be password protected for security reasons.
Today, Wi-Fi connection is easily available in cafes, restaurants, shopping malls,
college universities, and more public places. With a smooth connection, undoubtedly, one can
work at an exponential rate of quality and quantity.

3. Radio Frequency
Also popularly known as broadcast radio, This is the oldest type of wireless
communication. It can generate signals easily ranging from 3 kHz to 300 GHz. Unlike infrared
communication, RF transmission can happen through objects and travel long distances. Gladly,
radio transmission can penetrate through buildings, walls or anything else. And that’s how the
popular radio stations function.

Mostly an audio broadcasting service, radio broadcasts sound through the air as radio
waves. The radio uses a transmitter that is used to transmit the data in the form of radio waves
to a receiving antenna.

Radio waves are electromagnetic signals, that are transmitted by an antenna. These waves have
completely different frequency segments, and you will be ready to obtain an audio signal by
changing into a frequency segment.

For example, you can take a radio station. When the RJ says you are listening to 92.7 BIG
FM, what he really means is that signals are being broadcasted at a frequency of 92.7megahertz,
which successively means the transmitter at the station is periodic at a frequency of 92.700,000
cycles/second.

When you would like to listen to 92.7 BIG FM, all you have to do is tune the radio to just accept
that specific frequency and you will receive perfect audio reception.
From sharing some entertainment to passing some serious news information, this
wireless radio communication is beneficial and how. The proficient data transmitter can also
help during disasters. This network is commonly used to pass on any emergency information.
The communication depends highly on some of the parameters like sender power, receiver
quality, antenna height and wavelength. Radio frequencies are often known as the
communication mode for most government organizations. The only drawback is the
dependency on frequency. In case of bad weather, radio waves will be effective.

4. Bluetooth

The main function of Bluetooth technology is that permits you to connect various electronic
devices wirelessly to a system for the transferring of data. Cell phones are connected to hands-
free earphones, mouse, wireless keyboard. By using the Bluetooth device the information from
one device to another device. This technology has various functions and it is used commonly in
the wireless communication market.

The functioning of the Bluetooth communication allows two devices to connect for the
data transfer (files, messages, music, images). Mobile phones can easily be connected to
Bluetooth headphones and have a wireless experience.
This wireless communication technology has a major drawback of distance. It can
function smoothly at a distance of a max of 30 feet.

5. Satellite communication

Here’s a type of wireless mode that holds significant importance globally. It is extensively
used to connect people anywhere in the world. This technology requires two dominant
integrants: the space and ground segments.
Satellite communication is one type of self-contained wireless communication
 technology, it is widely spread all over the world to allow users to stay connected almost
anywhere on the earth. When the signal (a beam of modulated microwave) is sent near the
satellite then, the satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to the antenna receiver which
is located on the surface of the earth. The ground segment consists of fixed or mobile
transmission, reception, and ancillary equipment and the space segment, which mainly is the
satellite itself.

6. Cellular communication
When we speak of what is wireless communication, this technology stands tall. It’s one
of the most commonly used in our day-to-day life. Cellular communication allows transmission
through any mobile phone. The preset mode permits a dual way wherein the transmitter and
receiver can obtain signals simultaneously.

The advancement of mobile networks is enumerated by generations. Many users

communicate across a single frequency band through mobile phones. Cellular and cordless
phones are two examples of devices that make use of wireless signals. Typically, cell phones
have a larger range of networks to provide coverage. But, Cordless phones have a limited range.
Similar to GPS devices, some phones make use of signals from satellites to communicate.

Cellular communication scores very high on convenience, and that’s why the use of
video and voice calls is growing by the day.

7. Microwave
Microwave wireless communication technology has a frequency range between 1GHz-
300GHz. This communication is routinely used in mobile phones and TV distribution. It is one
of the most rapid technologies and can carry about 2500 voice channels at one time. This type
of wireless communication can be used in the terrestrial or satellite method. However, it is
unidirectional and hence used in point-to-point communication. One weighty downside is that
it can massively be affected by bad weather.
4. Write advantages and disadvantages and application of Wireless Communication.
Advantages:
1. Flexibility:
When it comes to installation options, wireless communications systems are very
flexible. In contrast to wired systems, which depend on the location and building's structure,
wireless systems can be installed practically anywhere. For instance, a wired internet system
needs a building that can accommodate drilling for wiring, which might not be feasible for
glass, tented, or historic buildings.
People may stay in touch wherever they are due to wireless communications. You can
send an urgent email even if you're not in the office.
Satellite connections can be used in far-off places like mines or resort hotels to make
phone calls and access the internet, keeping people connected to the outside world even when
they are thousands of miles from civilization.

2. Convenience and Mobility:

People need to be continually linked, even while they're moving about, due to the increased use of
social media networks and email as communication tools. While wireless communication devices are
transportable and may be moved anywhere, wired communicationsystems are fixed in the installation
location and cannot be moved.

Wireless communications allow you to move freely and remain connected to the
network. Wireless networks work with various devices, whether desktop computers, laptops,
or smartphones. Now, presuming the meeting location has internet ports to plug into in the first
place, you may leave your office and go to a meeting and still be connected without lugging
cables with you.

3. Speed & Stability:

The speed and stability of communications have both increased because of wireless
communication. Recall the days when a telephone pole outside your house would collapse on
a rainy day, cutting off your landline phone service. Or when it took a very long time for a
telephone provider to come and fix a cable cut due to an accident or simple wear and tear?
Such problems are no longer a concern because of smartphones. The same is true for
wired internet connections; interruption rates were significantly greater than when using a
wireless system, saving you vital time and money on maintenance and repairs.
4. Ease of Installation & Scalability:

Wired communications installation is expensive and time-consuming. Even after installation,

additional money will be needed to scale the system to support new devices or users. If you are
located in a distant place, you should consider how long it will take to dig trenches, install
wires, and give the project additional time.
When using wireless communication, initial setup is simpler, and adding new users to
the network doesn't require further installation. As with WiFi connections, you must provide
them with their login information to get someone connected.

Disadvantages:
1. Security:
Utilizing wireless networks raises serious security concerns. An improperly installed or
managed wireless network could pose serious security risks. A wireless network does not
require physical connections like wires. They merely require a wireless adaptor, which raises
the risk of hacking because hackers may easily enter the network. A worsening of the situation
may occur if the network has password protection.

2. Speed:
The wireless network's speed is less rapid than that of wired networks. In a wireless network, file
transfers and file sharing are much slower. The location of the user on the networkaffects performance
as well. The connection degrades more rapidly the further the user is awayfrom the network. For vast
areas or buildings, this is a major issue.

3. Prone to Interference:
There is a high chance of interference and jamming in wireless networks because of
environmental variables like dust storms or fog. When too many users are in one area, the air
band that the signals are transported across can become overloaded. A wireless network could
become unreliable due to fog, radiation, radio waves, or any other type of interference since
wireless networks are particularly prone to interference.

4. Requires Basic Computer Knowledge:

A basic understanding of computers is necessary to set up a wireless network. Installing
a wireless network might be difficult for people with little computer skills. Security is risky,
and those networks are easy targets for hackers.

Applications:
 Satellite system
 Television remote control
 Wi-Fi
 Walkie-talkie
 Cellphones
 Bluetooth
 GPS
 Accessing the internet.
 For locating and tracing someone.
5. Evolution of mobile communication systems / Generations of wireless communication
(Point wise).
Wireless mobile communication system has become more popular due to rapid changes
in mobile technology. Fast development of wireless communication systems are due to very
high increase in telecoms customers. We all have seen various generations in our life. Let’s
discuss them one by one.
1G (1st Generation):

 First-time calling was introduced in mobile systems.

 It used analog signals.
 It used an FDD scheme and typically allocated a bandwidth of 25 Mhz.
 The coverage area was small.
 No roaming support between various operators.
 Low sound quality.
 Speed:- 2.4 kbps.

2G (2nd Generation):

 Shifted from analog to digital.

 It supported voice and SMS both.
 Supported all 4 sectors of the wireless industry namely Digital cellular, Mobile
Data, PCS, WLAN,
 Moderate mobile data service.
 2G WLAN provided a high data rate & large area coverage.
 Speed:- 64 kbps.

 2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of GPRS. Streaming was also introduced
and mail services too. Then came 2.75G or EDGE which was faster in providing
services than 2.5G. It gave faster internet speed up to 128kbps and also used edge
connection.
3G (3rd Generation):
 The Internet system was improved.
 Better system and capacity.
 Offers high-speed wireless internet.
 The connection used was UMTS and WCMA.
 Speed:- 2mbps.

4G (4th Generation):
 IP-based protocols.
 LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for the internet.
 Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and the internet.
 Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with reasonable QoS.
 High usability.
 Supports multimedia service at a low transmission cost.
 HD Quality Streaming.
 Speed:-100mbps.
 5G (5th Generation):

 It is yet to come in many countries but here are some notable points about 5G.
 Higher data rates.
 Connectivity will be more fast and more secure,
 Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.
 Massive network capacity.
 It is 30 times faster than 4G.
 There would be more flexibility in the network.

OR
List features of 1G to 5G Technology. / Difference Between 1G, 2G, 2.5G 3G, 4G Generation
In Tabular Form

Features of 1g Technology

 The main feature of 1G technology was the ability to make calls from any location. Because
of this, it has become popular for both personal and business use.
 Furthermore, it offered a great deal of convenience for people who travelled or needed to
stay connected on the go.
 The transmission speeds of 1G technology were quite low, usually maxing out at 9.6 kbps.
This meant that data usage was limited, and it wasn’t suitable for more complex
applications.

Features of 2g Technology

 2G technology was based on GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) which
allowed for digital encryption of communications.
 2G also made it possible for phone networks to track the exact location of a user and allowed
roaming between different networks.
 2G also allowed for the development of mobile internet and mobile commerce.
 2G technology was instrumental in the development of the modern mobile phone and
although it has been largely replaced by 3G and 4G technologies, it is still used in some
parts of the world.
 Many people still find the 2G network more reliable than the more modern networks.

Features of 3g Technology

 The main features of 3G technology are that it allows users to access high-speed data
services, such as streaming audio and video and making video calls.
 It also offers improved coverage, allowing users to stay connected in areas where 2G service
may be poor.
 In addition, 3G technology allows for higher data transfer speeds, making it ideal for
accessing the Internet, downloading large files, and streaming multimedia content.
 Finally, 3G technology is more energy efficient than 2G systems, allowing for longer battery
life.

Features of 4g Technology

 4G offers a much more reliable signal and connection when compared to previous
generations.
 Its improved signal strength and data transfer speeds allow users to enjoy faster browsing
and streaming experiences.
 Moreover, 4G technology allows for a better quality of voice calls, as it uses a different type
 of voice codec to compress audio signals.
 In addition, 4G networks are better equipped to handle data-intensive activities like gaming,
streaming videos, and sending large documents. It also supports a variety of services,
including Location-Based services (LBS), Mobile TV, and VoIP.

Features of 5g Technology

 The main features of 5G technology are its incredibly fast speeds, low latency, massive
capacity, and improved reliability.
 5G can provide speeds of up to 10 Gbps, which is up to 100 times faster than the average
home broadband connection. This means that users can enjoy high-quality streaming
services without any buffering or lag.
 It also offers low latency, which is important for applications such as gaming and virtual
reality.
 5G is also capable of supporting a massive number of devices and users simultaneously.

Basic Terms 1G 2G 2.5G 3G 4G

Full Form First Generation Second Generation Second and a Third Fourth
Half Generation Generation
Generation
Year 1980s 1990s (1991) 2001 through 2005 released in
2003 2008
working
Fully upto
2009
Support voice only SMS, picture WAP, MMS, digital, Voice ,
messages, and SMS mobile supported Video Call
MMS. games, and data, ,Mail VOIP
search and GPS, INTERNET,
directory. Video Video
Conferencing, Streaming
Video on etc
demand.
Speed 2.4kbps (GPRS) in 40- (GPRS) 20 to 2 Mbps for 50Mps-
50kbps 40 Kbps non-moving 100Mbps
(EDGE) in (EDGE) 236.8 devices and
500kbps – 1 Mbps kbps to 384 384 Kbps in
moving
vehicles.
Dropped calls Yes Yes Yes Improvements Much better.
Security Little Text Encryption Encryption Infrastructure end-to-end
Security, end- encryption
to-end
security
Voice Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Video No No No Yes Yes
Signals Analog Digital Digital Digital Digital
Technologies AMPS, NMT, GSM TDMA,CDMA W-CDMA LTE , LTE
TACS UMTS, Advanced
EDGE
Multiple FDMA TDMA, CDMA TDMA, CDMA CDMA
Address/Acce CDMA
ss system
Switching Circuit Circuit switching Circuit Packet Packet
type switching for Voice and switching for switching switching
Packet switching Voice and except for Air
for Data Packet Interface
switching for
Data
Internet No Internet Narrowband Narrowband Broadband Ultra
service Broadband
Bandwidth Analog 25 MHz 25 MHz 25 MHz 100 MHz
Special First wireless Digital version of Upgarde Digital Very high
Characteristic communication 1G technology version of 2G broadband, speeds, All
technology speed IP
increments

Full Forms Used in Table

 GSM : Global System for Mobile communication
 GPS : Global Positioning System
 WAP : Wireless Application Protocol
 SMS : Short Message Service
 MMS : Multimedia Messaging Service
 VOIP : Video Over Internet Protocol
 CDMA : Code Division Multiple Access
 TDMA : Time Division Multiple Access
 NMT : Nordic Mobile Telephone
 AMPS : Advanced Mobile Phone System
 TACS : Total Access Communication System
 GPRS : General Packet Radio Service
 EDGE : Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
 UMTS : Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
 WCDMA : Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
 HSDPA : High Speed Downlink Packet Access
 E-UTRA : Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access
 LTE : Long Term Evolution
 LTE Advanced : Long Term Evolution Advanced

6. Explain the Difference between Wired and Wireless Communication.

Wired Communication Wireless Communication

In a wired communication system In wireless communication systems,

there exists a physical media between there do not exist any physical media
the transmitter and the receiver using between the transmitter and the
which the signal is transferred. receiver.
For wired communication systems we An antenna is an essential part of
don’t need any antenna to transmit or wireless communication systems.
receive the signals as it is done using
the physical media.
 In such systems, information is sent in In such systems information is
form of electrical signals. As now transmitted using electromagnetic
optical fibers are also being used for waves. The frequencies of these
high-speed transmission, signals can waves are different for different
also be in the form of optical signals. applications.
A wired communication system is The wireless communication system
used for short-distance is suitable for long-distance
communication because as the length communication.
of the wire increases the received
signal quality decreases. Though
intercontinental communication is
also done using underwater cables.

Implementation of a wired A wireless communication system is

communication system is less more complex in nature than a wired
complex than a wireless communication system.
communication system.

7. Explain Wireless Local Loop(WLL)

Local loop is a circuit line from a subscriber’s phone to the local central office (LCO).
But the implementation of local loop of wires is risky for the operators, especially in rural and
remote areas due to less number of users and increased cost of installation. Hence, the solution
for it is the usage of wireless local loop (WLL) which uses wireless links rather than copper
wires to connect subscribers to the local central office.

WLL Architecture:

WLL components:
PSTN:
It is Public Switched Telephone Network which is a circuit switched network. It is a collection
of world’s interconnected circuit switched telephone networks.
Switch Function:
Switch Function switches the PSTN among various WANUs.
WANU:
 It is short for Wireless Access Network Unit. It is present at the local exchange office. All local
WASUs are connected to it. Its functions includes: Authentication, Operation & maintenance,
Routing, transceiving voice and data.
It consists of following sub-components:

 Transceiver: It transmits/receives data.

 WLL Controller: It controls the wireless local loop component with WASU.
 AM: It is short for Access Manager. It is responsible for authentication.
 HLR: It is short for Home Location Register. It stores the details of all local WASUs.
WASU:
It is short for Wireless Access Subscriber Units. It is present at the house of the subscriber. It
connects the subscriber to WANU and the power supply for it is provided locally.
Features of WLL:
 Internet connection via modem
 Data service
 Voice service
 Fax service
Advantages of WLL:
 It eliminates the first mile or last mile construction of the network connection.
 Low cost due to no use of conventional copper wires.
 Much more secure due to digital encryption techniques used in wireless
communication.
 Highly scalable as it doesn’t require the installation of more wires for scaling it.

8. How many types of techniques used in WLL? Explain.

The WLL system can be based on 4 major technologies. They are:

i. Satellite-Based Systems:
These systems provide telephony services for rural communities and isolated areas such
as islands. Satellite systems are designed for a Gaussian or Rician channel with K factor greater
than 7 dB. These systems can be of two types:
Technology designed specifically for WLL applications and Technology piggy backed onto
mobile satellite systems as an adjunct service of these.
The former offers quality and grade of service comparable to wireline access, but it may be
expensive.
The latter promises to be less costly but, due to bandwidth restrictions, may not offer the quality
and grade of service comparable to plain old telephone service (POTS).
An example of a satellite based technology specifically designed for WLL is the HNS
telephony earth station (TES) technology.
Advantages:
• Low bit rate for voice and data.
• Low cost mobile terminals.
 • It provides quality and grade of service for WLL applications.
Disadvantages:
• The number of satellites and propagation delay put restrictions on the system design.
• Handover capability is needed e.g. LEO,MEO satellites are in motion relative to the
earth’s surface, so they need handover capability for all fixed and cellular applications
ii. Cellular-Based Systems:
These systems provide large power, large range, median subscriber density, and median
circuit quality WLL services. Cellular WLL technologies are primarily used to expand the basic
telephony services.
This approach offers both mobility and fixed wireless access from the same cellular platform. For
relatively sparsely populated rural and even urban settings, WLL technologies based on existing
cellular systems can be economical and rapidly deployable . They include much sophisticated
technology (and therefore overhead bandwidth) not necessarily required for the WLL application.
The resultant limited user bandwidth represents a fundamental limitation of such systems for
WLL.

Advantages:
• They provide fixed wireless access and mobility.
• They can be rapidly deployed in rural and urban areas.
• They provide large power and operating range.
• They provide medium circuit and medium subscriber density.

Disadvantages:
• They are not recommended for deployment indoors and in picocells.
• Air interface is complex.
• The user bandwidth is limited.

iii. Fixed Wireless Access Systems

These systems are proprietary radio systems designed specifically for fixed wireless
applications, which may or may not be extensible to PCS or cordless.
The primary disadvantage of the cellular approach is its limitation on toll quality voice (new
toll-quality vocoders designed for cellular technologies may eliminate this problem), and
signaling transparency. The primary disadvantage of low-tier PCS and microcellular
approaches is their range.
FWA systems for zonal areas are designed to cover the local telephone area directly from
the PSTN switches. The systems for rural areas provide connection at the remote ends of rural
links to the end users.
Advantages:
• Less expensive
• It can be easily installed
 • The installation time need is less.

Disadvantages:
• Limitation on toll-quality and signaling transparency.
iv. Low-Tier PCS or Microcellular-Based Systems:
These systems provide low power, small range, high subscriber density, and high circuit quality
WLL services. These technologies are considered to facilitate rapid market entry and to
expand the capacity of the existing infrastructure. They are typically operated at 800 MHz,
1.5 GHz, 1.8 GHz, and 1.9 GHz frequency bands.
Compared with the cellular-based WLL, more base stations are required to cover the same
service area. Operators may consider low-tier WLL technologies when an existing
infrastructure is in place to support backhaul.
For densely populated urban environments, WLL technologies based on existing low-tier
PCS radio technologies.
Advantages:
• High Subscriber density.
• Low power.
• High circuit quality.
Disadvantages:
• Transmission cost is more.

9. Explain Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN).

WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. WLAN is a wireless network that
allows devices to associate and communicate wirelessly. Just like a traditional wired LAN in
which the device transmits over Ethernet cables, the devices using the WLAN transmit through
WiFi.
Mobile users can connect to a WLAN through wireless connection. The IEEE 802.11
group of standards describe the technologies for LANs.Though WLAN looks dissimilar to the
traditional LAN, it works in the same way.

 First, new devices are configured with the help of DHCP.

 Then, they can connect with other devices on the network in the same manner they
would work on a wired network.
 The main difference is how the data is passed on. In LAN, data is transferred through
physical cables in a series of Ethernet packets. However, in WLAN, packets are
transferred across the air.
Wireless routers provide wireless connection to the devices whose WiFi are ON and in
the range of the router’s signal. Devices can be laptops, tablets, smartphones, and other wireless
devices.
Also, wireless routers frequently connect to the cable modem or the devices to connect
to the Internet easily.
Advantages:
  The primary advantage of using a WLAN is that it requires no cables to connect
thedevices. It's extremely easy to establish a connection.
 Wireless connections help businesses and homes to generate local networks
withoutusing cables over the buildings using Ethernet.
 You can also connect small electronic gadgets like smartphones and tablets to
thenetwork.
 There is no limit to WLANs. It supports hundreds and thousands of devices.
 You can increase the range of the WLAN by the addition of one or more repeaters.
 WLAN can be easily updated by restoring new versions, which is simpler
and inexpensive than upgrading the old Ethernet cables.

Disadvantages:

 When it comes to security, wireless networks are less safe than wired networks. Any
device can connect to the WLAN, so it is important to limit the connection to any
network.
 The limiting of data sharing to other networks is done using wireless identification
like WEP or WPA, which encode the transmission.
 Furthermore, wireless is more vulnerable to interference from other physical barriers
like the solid wall.
 For government networks and many enterprises, LANs are used to provide good
performance and safety.

10. Explain topologies of WLAN.

1. Independent basic service sets (IBSSs)
2. Basic service sets (BSSs)
3. Extended service sets (ESSs)
A service set is a logical grouping of devices. WLANs provide network access by
broadcasting a signal across a wireless radio frequency (RF) carrier. A receiving station can be
within range of a number of transmitters. The transmitter prefaces its transmissions with a
service set identifier (SSID). The receiver uses the SSID to filter through the received signals
and locate the one it wants to listen to.
1. Independent basic service sets (IBSSs)
An IBSS consists of a group of 802.11 stations communicating directly with one
another. An IBSS is also referred to as an ad-hoc network because it is essentially a simple
peer-to-peer WLAN. Figure illustrates how two stations equipped with 802.11 network
interface cards (NICs) can form an IBSS and communicate directly with one another.
2. Basic service sets (BSSs)

A BSS is a group of 802.11 stations communicating with one another. A BSS requires
a specialized station known as an access point (AP). The AP is the central point of
communications for all stations in a BSS. The client stations do not communicate directly other
client stations. Rather, they communicate with the AP, and the AP forwards the frames to the
destination stations. The AP might be equipped with an uplink port that connects the BSS to a
wired network (for example, an Ethernet uplink). Because of this requirement, a BSS is also
referred to as an infrastructure BSS. Figure illustrates a typical infrastructure BSS.

3. Extended service sets (ESSs)

Multiple infrastructure BSSs can be connected via their uplink interfaces. In the world
of 802.11, the uplink interface connects the BSS to the distribution system (DS). The collection
of BSSs interconnected via the DS is known as the ESS. Figure shows a practical
implementation of an ESS. The uplink to the DS does not have to be via a wired connection.
The 802.11 specification leaves the potential for this link to be wireless. For the most part, DS
uplinks are wired Ethernet.

11. Explain the Difference between LAN and WLAN.

 LAN WLAN
LAN stands for Local Area Network. WLAN stands for Wireless Local
Area Network.

LAN connections include wired as WLAN connections are completely

well as wireless connection based on wireless technology.
technologies.

LAN connections are less expensive WLAN connections are more

and more secure than the wireless expensive and considered less secure
connections of WLAN. than wired connections.

It is relatively complex to set up a It is relatively simple to configure and

LAN. One needs to connect several set up a WLAN.
network devices such as routers and
switches with the help of Ethernet
cables.

LANs provide good performance and WLAN provides high performance

the impact of weather is limited. but may get impacted in bad weather.

A LAN has limited mobility. It needs WLAN is highly mobile in nature. No

Ethernet to connect devices. Ethernet is required to connect the
devices to a WLAN.
LAN connections cannot be WLAN connections can be
interrupted easily. interrupted easily.

Examples: Desktops, laptops Examples: Desktops, laptops

connected to LAN in an office. connected on WiFi or hotspot based
networks.

12. Explain Bluetooth with Piconet.

Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting and receiving data using radio
waves. It can be paired with the other device which has also Bluetooth but it should be within
the estimated communication range to connect. When two devices start to share data, they form
a network called piconet which can further accommodate more than five devices.
Points to remember for Bluetooth:

 Bluetooth Transmission capacity 720 kbps.

 Bluetooth is Wireless.
 Bluetooth is a Low-cost short-distance radio communications standard.
 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
 Bluetooth is cable replacement technology that can be used to connect almost any
 device to any other device.
Types of Bluetooth:
Various types of Bluetooth are available in the market nowadays. Let us look at them:

 In-Car Headset: One can make calls from the car speaker system without the use of
mobile phones.
 Stereo Headset: To listen to music in car or in music players at home.
 Webcam: One can link the camera with the help of Bluetooth with their laptop or phone.
 Bluetooth-equipped Printer: The printer can be used when connected via Bluetooth with
mobile phone or laptop.
 Bluetooth Global Positioning System (GPS): To use GPS in cars, one can connect their
phone with car system via Bluetooth to fetch the directions of the address.

Power Saving States of a Bluetooth Device:

Bluetooth devices incorporate several power-saving states to conserve battery life,
especially when they are not actively transmitting or receiving data. Here’s an overview of these
states:
1. Sniff Mode:
o Purpose: Reduces power consumption by allowing the device to enter a low-power
state while maintaining a connection.
oOperation: The device periodically "wakes up" to check for data at regular intervals
(called sniff intervals). This reduces the time the device spends active, conserving
battery life.
2. Hold Mode:
o Purpose: Temporarily reduces the device's activity to save power while still
maintaining the connection.
o Operation: The device pauses its activities for a specified duration (hold time).
During this time, the device does not send or receive data, but the connection
remains intact. This is useful for devices that need to conserve energy without
completely disconnecting.
3. Park Mode:
o Purpose: Minimizes power usage by putting the device into a very low-power state.
o Operation: The device releases its active member address (AM_ADDR) and stops
participating in the piconet (Bluetooth network). However, it remains synchronized
with the master device and can be quickly reactivated when needed. This mode is
ideal for devices that need to stay connected but do not require constant
communication.
4. Deep Sleep Mode:
o Purpose: Achieves the maximum power saving by putting the device into the lowest
power state possible.
o Operation: The device's radio and most of its processing functions are turned off. It
only keeps essential functions active to wake up when needed. This mode is used
when the device does not need to maintain a connection or perform any immediate
tasks.
The power-saving states of a Bluetooth device—Sniff Mode, Hold Mode, Park Mode, and Deep
Sleep Mode—allow it to conserve battery life by reducing its activity levels while maintaining
essential functions. These states are crucial for extending the battery life of Bluetooth-enabled
devices, especially in scenarios where continuous data transmission is not required.
Advantage:

 It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.

 It can also penetrate through walls.
 It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
 It is used for voice and data transfer.
Disadvantages:

 It can be hacked and hence, less secure.

 It has a slow data transfer rate: of 3 Mbps.
 It has a small range: 10 meters.
 Bluetooth communication does not support routing.
 The issues of handoffs have not been addressed.
Applications:

 It can be used in laptops, and in wireless PCs, printers.

 It can be used in wireless headsets, wireless PANs, and LANs.
 It can connect a digital camera wirelessly to a mobile phone.
 It can transfer data in terms of videos, songs, photographs, or files from one cell phone
to another cell phone or computer.
 It is used in the sectors of Medical health care, sports and fitness, Military.
Piconet:

 Piconet gets its name from the word “pico”, which means very small. This very small
network is so called because the number is limited to seven devices, plus the master, which
limits network and data sharing capability.
 A piconet is sometimes called a personal area network (PAN) because the range of optimal
operation for Bluetooth is 10 meters, about the size of a living room.
 A piconet is usually implemented with small mobile devices or home devices that need to
communicate with each other.
 Communication can take place between a master node and a slave node in either one-to-
one or one-to-many manner. However, no direct communication takes place between
slaves.
 When ever two or more devices detect each other and communicate through Bluetooth,
a PICONET is formed.

13. Write a short Note : Personal Area Network
Personal Area Network (PAN) is the computer network that connectscomputers/devices
within the range of an individual person. As PAN provides a network rangewithin a person’s
range typically within a range of 10 meters(33 feet) it is called a Personal Area Network. A
Personal Area Network typically involves a computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA (Personal
Digital Assistant) and other and other entertainment devices like speakers, video game
consoles, etc.
Thomas Zimmerman and other researchers at M.I.T.’s Media Lab first developed the
concept of PAN. It is very useful in the home, offices, and small network areas due to its high
performance in terms of flexibility and efficiency.
Types of Personal Area Network (PAN) :
Personal Area Network can be of 2 types depending upon its connection i.e., Wireless PAN,
and Wired PAN.
These are explained as following below.
1. Wireless PAN –

Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) is connected through signals such as

infrared, ZigBee, Bluetooth and ultrawideband, etc.

2. Wired PAN –
 Wired PAN is connected through cables/wires such as Firewire or USB (Universal
Serial Bus).
Examples of PAN :
Body Area Network –
It is a mobile network that moves with a persona range for example when a person
connects his smartphone to the Bluetooth headphone and moves in the market that refers to a
body area network.
Offline Network –
In this multiple devices are connected through Bluetooth or Wi-Fi. The devices attached
to your computer including printers, mouse, speakers, and other appliances are integrated using
a Personal Area Network (PAN) and do not use the internet. So a communication network is
formed between the devices used in a small single space for example home.
Home Office –
In Home Office set up a separate smaller network is set up for work purposes which is
separate from the network used by other home appliances. This network works as a separate
body with multiple other devices connected for office work purposes.
Advantages:

 PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network ranges.
 It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
 It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
 It is easy and portable.
 Needs fewer technical skills to use.
Disadvantages:

 Low network coverage area/range.

 Limited to relatively low data rates.
 Devices are not compatible with each other.
 Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.
Applications:
 Home and Offices
 Organizations and the Business sector
 Medical and Hospital
 School and College Education
 Military and Defense

14. Paging Systems

  Pager is a Simplex Communication Device. Paging Systems are communication systems
that send messages to a subscriber. Message can be numeric or alphanumeric.
 Paging Systems are used to notify a subscriber of the need to call a particular telephone
number or to travel to a location to receive further instructions. In modern paging
systems, news headlines, faxes can also be sent.
 A message is sent to a paging subscriber via the paging system access number with a
telephone keypad or modem. The issued message is called a "Page‟. The pagingsystem
then transmits the page throughout the service area using base stations which broadcast
the page on a radio carrier.
 The coverage area of a simple paging system ranges from 2 to 5 km while a wide paging
system can have a worldwide coverage area. Whenever a sender wants to send a message
to a receiver he dials the 10 digit pager number of receiver through his telephone.
 Then this call is accepted by the operator present in the paging control centre to whom
the receiver pager number and the message to be sent has to be sent.
 Then the operator will broadcast the message and the receiver paging number to all the
paging terminals or the base stations.
 Then a particular base station under the area where the receiver is present will transmit
the message to the receiver pager. Then the receivers pager device will receive all
messages and will verify whether the sender number is stored in its memory or not.
 If it is stored then the pager device will give beep which indicates the receiver that a
message is sent by sender to his pager and the message will be displayed in the LCD.

15. Cordless Telephone Systems

 Cordless Telephone Systems are full duplex communication systems that use radio to
connect a portable handset to a dedicated base station, which is also connected to adedicated
telephone line with a specific telephone number on PSTN.
 The fixed port of a cordless telephone is nothing but the base unit on which cordless handset
is placed, is connected to a telephone line and an adapter to produce a dc supplyfor various
electronic circuits inside the base unit.
 The communication between the base unit and the handset is wireless and the range is limited
to 50 meters.
 In the base unit all call processing circuits like amplifiers and also ring circuit is present. In
addition a transceiver is also present which is used for communication with the handset.
 In handset also the transceiver along with an antenna, amplifier, microphone and loud
speaker are present.
 1st generation cordless telephone systems could cover only distance of a few ten
meters(approximately 50m)and can be operated solely as extension telephones to a
transceiver connected to a subscriber line on the PSTN and are primarily for in-home use.
 2nd generation cordless telephone systems could cover distance of a few hundred meters
which allows subscribers to use their handsets at many outdoor locations within urban
centers.
 Cordless telephone systems provide the user with limited range and mobility, as it is not
possible to maintain a call if the user travels outside the range of the base station.

16. Cellular Telephone Systems

 A cellular telephone system provides a wireless connection to the PSTN for any user location
within the radio range of the system.
 Cellular systems accommodate a large number of users over a large geographic area,
within a limited frequency spectrum.
 Cellular radio systems provide high quality service that is often comparable to that of the
landline telephone systems. High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage of each
base station transmitter to a small geographic area called a cell so that the same radio
channels may be reused by another base station located some distance away.
 A sophisticated switching technique called a handoff enables a call to proceed uninterrupted
when the user moves from one cell to another.
 Figure shows a basic cellular system which consists of mobile stations, base stations and a
mobile switching center (MSC). The mobile switching center is sometimes called a mobile
telephone switching office (MTSO), since it is responsible for connecting all mobiles to the
PSTN in a cellular system.
 Each mobile communicates via radio with one of the base stations and may be handed-off to
any number of base stations throughout the duration of a call.

17. Explain Piconet and Scatternet.

Piconet
A piconet is a network created by connecting multiple wireless devices using
Bluetooth technology. In a piconet network a master device exists, this master device cm gets
connected to 7 more slave devices.
It includes the master the number of devices that can be connected is limited to 8. Due to less
number of devices active at a time the usage of channel band width is not more.
Number of devices that can be connected is limited to 8. It is applicable for devices belonging
to small areas.
Given below is the diagram of piconet –

Scatternet

It is a network which connects multiple piconets using Bluetooth and it acts as a master and
another type of piconet acts as a slave. It has more than 6 devices that can be connected.
Multiple devices are active, so there is an effective use of channel bandwidth.
It is a connection of multiple piconets therefore it is applicable for devices belonging to large
areas.
Given below is the diagram of scatternet −
 18. Compare Piconet and Scatternet.

Piconet Scatternet
Piconet is the type of connection formed between 2 or more Bluetooth enabled devices.
between 2 or more Bluetooth enabled It is a type of ad-hoc computer network
devices. consisting of 2 or more piconets.

It supports maximum 8 nodes i.e,1 master & It supports more than 8 nodes.
7 slaves
It Allows less efficient use of Bluetooth It Allows more efficient use of Bluetooth
channel bandwidth. channel bandwidth.
It is usually applied to Bluetooth devices. It is applied to Bluetooth devices too.
It is a smaller coverage area It is a larger coverage area.

The figure given below depicts the piconet and scatternet together −

19. Write a short Note: Bluetooth protocol stack.

Bluetooth network technology connects mobile devices wirelessly over a short-range to form a
personal area network (PAN). The Bluetooth architecture has its own independent model with a
stack of protocols, instead of following the standard OSI model or TCP/IP model. Another
unique feature is that it is not mandatory for all the devices in the Bluetooth system to use all the
protocols in the stack. This is because Bluetooth is designed to be used by myriad applications
and the application designates which part of the protocol stack is to be used.

Protocols in the Bluetooth Protocol Stack

 Core protocols − This includes Bluetooth radio, Baseband, Link Manager Protocol (LMP),
Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP), and Service Discovery Protocol
(SDP).
 Cable Replacement Protocol − This includes Radio Frequency Communications
(RFComm) protocol. It is short for Radio Frontend Component. It provides a serial interface
with WAP.
 Adopted Protocols − These are the protocols that are adopted from standard models. The
commonly adopted protocols used in Bluetooth are Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), Internet
Protocol (IP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), and
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP).
 AT Commands − ATtention command set.

Functions of the Core Protocols

 Radio − This is a physical layer equivalent protocol that lays down the physical structure
and specifications for transmission of radio waves. It defines air interface, frequency bands,
frequency hopping specifications and modulation techniques.

 Baseband − This protocol takes the services of radio protocol. It defines the addressing
scheme, packet frame format, timing, and power control algorithms.
 Link Manager Protocol (LMP) − LMP establishes logical links between Bluetooth devices
and maintains the links for enabling communications. The other main functions of LMP are
device authentication, message encryption, and negotiation of packet sizes.

 Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) − L2CAP provides adaption
between upper layer frame and baseband layer frame format. L2CAP provides support for
both connection-oriented as well as connectionless services.

 Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)− SDP takes care of service-related queries like device
information so as to establish a connection between contending Bluetooth devices.

20. Explain L2CAP protocol of Bluetooth.

The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) is a key protocol in the Bluetooth
stack that facilitates communication between devices. Here's a concise explanation:
1. Purpose:
o L2CAP provides a channel-based communication service for data transfer between
Bluetooth devices. It adapts higher-level protocols to the Baseband layer, ensuring
efficient data transmission.
2. Functions:
o Data Multiplexing: L2CAP allows multiple applications and services to use the
same Bluetooth connection simultaneously by multiplexing data streams into
different logical channels.
o Segmentation and Reassembly: It breaks down large data packets into smaller
segments suitable for transmission and reassembles them at the receiving end.
o Quality of Service (QoS): L2CAP supports QoS features, ensuring reliable data
transfer by managing bandwidth and latency.
3. Channels and Connection:
o L2CAP establishes logical channels for data transfer, each with its own unique
identifier. These channels manage different types of data traffic, such as control
messages and user data.
L2CAP is crucial for Bluetooth communication as it ensures efficient, reliable, and organized
data transfer, supporting various applications and services on Bluetooth-enabled devices.