Key Features:

 Targeted Review: Focuses on essential concepts for last-minute preparation.

 Master the Basics: Simplifies complex topics for easy understanding.
 Written for Students: Presented in a student-friendly manner.
 Created from Reliable Sources: Backed by credible references.

Class MASTER OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS (MCA)

Semester II

Subject COMPUTER NETWORKS (MCA2102)

Prepared By CHAITANYA MOKKAPATI

Under The guidance of Dr.ABDUL BAJI (Pg - H.O.D)

Verified and Validiated by Dr.K.DEVA

 Computer Networks: Andrew S Tanenbaum David J.

Wetherall, 5/e, Pearson
 An Engineering approach to compute networking,
Reference Resources Kesha, Pearson.
 Geeks for Geeks.
 Tutorialspoint.

Last Updated on 26-04-2024 10:12 Am

 Nimra College of Engineering and Technology

NIMRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS
CLASS: M.C.A - 1 (SEM 2) Max. MARKS: 14

UNIT - 1

SYLLABUS TO BE COVERED

Introduction:
Network Topologies WAN, LAN, MAN. Reference models- The OSI Reference Modelthe
TCP/IP Reference Model - A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models.

Physical Layer:
Introduction to physical layer-Data and Signals, Periodic analog signals, digital
signals, transmission impairment, ,Data rate limits, performance -Introduction to
Guided Media- Twisted-pair cable, Coaxial cable and Fiber optic cable and Unguided
media: Wireless-Radio waves, microwaves, infrared.

Syllabus Topic Covered Uncovered

Computer Networks Yes No
Network Topologies Yes No
Local Area Networks (LANs) Yes No
OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models Yes No
Transmission Media Yes Partially (Unguided Media)
Physical Layer Yes No
ISDN Partially (Bit Pipe Channels) Yes
Presentation and Application Layers Partially Yes
Analog and Digital Signals Partially Yes
TCP/IP Reference Model Diagram Partially Yes
Twisted-Pair Cable Categories Partially Yes
OSI Reference Architecture Partially Yes

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 Nimra College of Engineering and Technology

NIMRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS
CLASS: M.C.A - 1 (SEM 2) Max. MARKS: 14

UNIT - 1

QUESTIONS TO BE COVERED

Q1. Define computer networks. Discuss various types of Network

Topologies in computer networks. Discuss various advantages and
disadvantages of each topology.

Q2. Discuss various channels supported by ISDN bit pipe.

Q3. Why we need Unguided media? What are the different Types of Unguided
media? Explain.

Q4. Compare OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models.

Q5. Discuss the major functions performed by the Presentation layer and
Application layer of the ISO -OSI model.

Q6. With neat examples explain analog signals & digital signals and
periodic signals and aperiodic signals.

Q7. Explain the TCP/IP reference model of computer network with a neat
diagram.

Q8. What is the significance of Twisted-pair cable? What are the

different categories of UTP? Compare.

Q9. Explain OSI reference architecture in detail.

Q10. Why are a LAN required and what objectives are achieved by having a
LAN?

Q11. Differentiate between guided and unguided transmission media.

Q12. Why twisted pair cables are preferable over coaxial cables?
Explain.

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Network Topologies and Reference Models

Q1. Define computer networks. Discuss various types of Network Topologies

in computer networks. Discuss various advantages and disadvantages of
each topology.

Q4. Compare OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models.

Physical Layer and Transmission Media

Q6. With neat examples explain analog signals & digital signals and
periodic signals and aperiodic signals.

Q8. What is the significance of Twisted-pair cable? What are the different
categories of UTP? Compare.

Q11. Differentiate between guided and unguided transmission media.

Q12. Why twisted pair cables are preferable over coaxial cables? Explain.

Unguided Media

Q3. Why we need Unguided media? What are the different Types of Unguided
media? Explain.

Presentation and Application Layers

Q5. Discuss the major functions performed by the Presentation layer and
Application layer of the ISO -OSI model.

LAN and Objectives

Q10. Why are LANs required and what objectives are achieved by having a
LAN?

TCP/IP Reference Model

Q7. Explain the TCP/IP reference model of computer network with a neat
diagram.

OSI Reference Architecture

Q9. Explain OSI reference architecture in detail.

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ISDN and Channels

Q2. Discuss various channels supported by ISDN bit pipe.

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Network Topologies and Reference Models

Q1. Define computer networks. Discuss various types of Network Topologies in computer networks.
Discuss various advantages and disadvantages of each topology.

ANSWER

Network Topologies:
1. Star Topology:

 Advantages:


 Disadvantages:


Diagram:

Figure 1.1: Star topology

2. Bus Topology:

 Advantages:


 Disadvantages:


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Diagram:

Figure 1.2: Bus topology

3. Ring Topology:

 Advantages:


 Disadvantages:


iagram:

Figure 1.3: Ring topology

4. Mesh Topology:

 Advantages:



 Disadvantages:



Diagram:

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Figure 1.4: Mesh topology

5. Hybrid Topology:

 Advantages:



 Disadvantages:



Diagram:

Figure 1.5: Hybrid topology

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:


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




Disadvantages:







Q4. Compare OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models.

ANSWER

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model are both conceptual frameworks used
to understand and standardize the functions of computer networking. While they
serve similar purposes, they have some key differences:

1) Layers:
 OSI Model:

 TCP/IP Model:

2) Protocols:
 OSI Model:

 TCP/IP Model:

3) Flexibility vs. Practicality:

 OSI Model:

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 TCP/IP Model:

4) Standardization:
 OSI Model:

 TCP/IP Model:

5) Scope:
 OSI Model:

 TCP/IP Model:

In summary, while both models serve as guidelines for understanding and

implementing network communication, the OSI model provides a more comprehensive
theoretical framework, whereas the TCP/IP model offers a more practical and
streamlined approach tailored specifically for Internet communication.

Figure 2.1 : The seven layers of the OSI model Figure 2.2 : TCP / IP model

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Physical Layer and Transmission Media

Q6. With neat examples explain analog signals & digital signals and periodic signals and aperiodic
signals.

ANSWER

Analog Signals:

Example:

Figure 6.1 : Anolog & Digital Signal

Digital Signals:

Example:

Periodic signals:

x(t) = x(t+T)

Where x(t) represents the signal, and T is the period of the signal.

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Figure 6.2 : Periodic Symbols

Example of periodic signals:

 Sine Wave:

, y(t) = sin(t) 2π,

2π

 Square Wave:
+1 -1
T.

 Triangle Wave:

Figure 6.3 : Sine wave Figure 6.4 : Square wave Figure 6.5 : Triangle wave

Aperiodic signals:

Example of aperiodic signals:

 Impulse Signal:

 Gaussian Noise:

 Speech Signal:

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Q8. What is the significance of Twisted-pair cable? What are the different categories of UTP?
Compare.

ANSWERS

Twisted-pair cable is a type of wiring commonly used in

telecommunications and computer networks. Its significance lies in its ability
to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk between adjacent
pairs of wires, leading to better signal quality and data transmission
reliability.

There are several categories of unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cables, each with
different specifications and performance levels:

 Cat 3:

 Cat 5:

 Cat 5e:

 Cat 6:

 Cat 6a:

 Cat 7:

Q11. Differentiate between guided and unguided transmission media.

ANSWER
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Guided Transmission Media:


o
o
o


Unguided Transmission Media:


o
o
o


Difference between Guided and Unguided Media

S.No Guided Media Unguided Media

In unguided media, the signal
In guided media, the signal energy
1. energy communicates through the
communicates via wires.
air.
Guided media is generally Unguided media is generally
2. preferred when we want to execute preferred for radio broadcasting in
direct communication. all directions.
The guided media formed the The unguided media formed the
3.
different network topologies. continuous network topologies.
Here, the signals are in the state Here, the signals are in the state
4.
of current and voltage. of electromagnetic waves.
In the case of guided media, the In the case of unguided media, it
5. transmission capacity can be is not feasible to acquire more
boosted by counting more wires. capacity.
6. Open Wire, Twisted Pair, Coaxial Microwave Transmission, Radio
Cable, and Optical Fibre are the Transmission, and Infrared
different kinds of guided media. Transmission are the types of
unguided media.

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Q12. Why twisted pair cables are preferable over coaxial cables? Explain.

ANSWER

Twisted pair cables are often preferred over coaxial cables for several reasons:

1. Cost-effectiveness:

2. Flexibility:

3. Interference reduction:

4. Scalability:

5. Versatility:

6. Ease of termination:

7. Compatibility with modern networking technologies:

While coaxial cables also have their advantages, such as higher bandwidth
capabilities over longer distances, twisted pair cables often provide a more practical
and cost-effective solution for many networking and communication applications.

Unguided Media

Q3. Why we need Unguided media? What are the different Types of Unguided media? Explain.

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ANSWER

Unguided media, also known as wireless media, are essential in modern communication systems for
several reasons:

 Mobility:

 Flexibility:

 Scalability:

 Accessibility:

There are several types of unguided media, each with its own characteristics and applications:

 Radio Waves:

 Microwaves:

 Infrared Waves:

 Light Waves (Optical):

 Ultraviolet and Beyond:

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Presentation and Application Layers

Q5. Discuss the major functions performed by the Presentation layer and Application layer of the
ISO -OSI model.

ANSWER

Figure 5.1: OSI 7 Layers

The Presentation layer and Application layer are two crucial components of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model, each serving distinct but interconnected functions.

Presentation Layer:

The Presentation layer is primarily responsible for ensuring the compatibility of data exchanged
between different systems. It functions as a translator, converting data from the format used by the
application layer into a standardized format that can be transmitted over the network. This layer is also
involved in data compression and encryption, optimizing the efficiency and security of data transmission.

Functions of the Presentation layer:

 Data Translation:

 Encryption and Decryption:

 Data Compression:

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 Syntax Formatting:

Application Layer:

The Application layer serves as the interface between the user and the network services. It is
responsible for providing network services directly to the user or application software. This layer
encompasses various protocols and services that enable users to access network resources and
communicate with other users or applications.

Functions of the Application layer:

 User Interface:

 Network Services:

 Protocol Support:

 Data Representation:

LAN and Objectives

Q10. Why are LANs required and what objectives are achieved by having a LAN?

ANSWER

Figure 10.1: Key Components Of LAN ARCHITECTURE CN - UNIT 1 17

 Nimra College of Engineering and Technology

LAN stands for local area network, which is a network of computers

and other electronic devices that are all located in the same physical area. LANs can
be found almost everywhere, including homes, public workplaces, and public libraries.
The purpose of LAN is to allow computers and other peripherals located in the same area
to connect and exchange information with one another easily.

Local Area Networks (LANs) are required for several reasons, primarily to
facilitate communication and resource sharing within a localized environment,
such as an office building, school campus, or home. The objectives achieved by
having a LAN include:

 Resource Sharing:

 Data Transfer:

 Communication:

 Centralized Management:

 Scalability:

 Increased Efficiency:

 Enhanced Collaboration:

 Improved Security:

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TCP/IP Reference Model

Q7. Explain the TCP/IP reference model of computer network with a neat diagram.

ANSWER

The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) reference model is a conceptual framework
used for understanding how data is transmitted over a network. It consists of four layers, each responsible
for different aspects of network communication. Here's a brief explanation of each layer along with a
diagram:

 Application Layer:

Examples of protocols at this layer include:

 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol),

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol),
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and
 DNS (Domain Name System).

 Transport Layer:

The most common protocols at this layer are:

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

TCP provides reliable, connection-oriented communication with error checking and flow
control, while UDP offers faster, connectionless communication without guaranteed
delivery.

 Internet Layer:

 Link Layer:

 Ethernet,
 Wi-Fi, and
 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol).

Diagram:

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Figure 7.2: Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model

Figure 7.1: TCP/IP Reference Model

OSI Reference Architecture

Q9. Explain OSI reference architecture in detail.

ANSWER

Fig 9.1: Layer of OSI model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model is a conceptual framework that
standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven distinct layers. Each
layer serves a specific purpose and communicates with the adjacent layers through defined protocols. The
OSI model facilitates interoperability between different systems by ensuring that each layer's functions are
well-defined and independent of the others.

Here's a detailed explanation of each layer:

 Physical Layer:

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 Data Link Layer:

 Network Layer:

 Transport Layer:

 Session Layer:

 Presentation Layer:

 Application Layer:

ISDN and Channels

Q2. Discuss various channels supported by ISDN bit pipe.
ANSWER

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) offers various channels

within its bit pipe to facilitate different types of communication. Here
are some of the channels supported by ISDN:
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Fig 2.1: ISDN Channels

 B Channel (Bearer Channel):



 D Channel (Delta Channel or Data Channel):



 H Channel (H0, H11, H12, etc.):



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 Nimra College of Engineering and Technology

NIMRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS
CLASS: M.C.A - 1 (SEM 2) Max. MARKS: 14

UNIT - 2

SYLLABUS TO BE COVERED

The Data Link Layer:

Services Provided to the Network Layer – Framing – Error Control – Flow Control,
Error Detection and Correction – Error-Correcting Codes – Error Detecting Codes.

Elementary Data Link Protocols:

A Utopian Simplex Protocol-A Simplex Stop and Wait Protocol for an Error free
channel-A Simplex Stop and Wait Protocol for a Noisy Channel, Sliding Window
Protocols-A One Bit Sliding Window Protocol-A Protocol Using Go-Back-N- A Protocol
Using Selective Repeat

Covered Concepts Questions Covering the Concepts

Data Link Layer Q1, Q3 (Sliding Window Protocols), Q7, Q9
Services Provided to the Network Layer Q1, Q3 (Go back NARQ, Selective repeat ARQ), Q7, Q9
Framing Q1
Error Control Q1, Q2, Q5, Q6, Q8, Q10
Flow Control Q1
Error Detection and Correction Q1, Q2, Q5, Q6, Q8, Q10
Error-Correcting Codes Q1, Q2, Q6, Q8
Error Detecting Codes Q1, Q2, Q5, Q6, Q8, Q10
Elementary Data Link Protocols Q1, Q3 (Sliding Window Protocols), Q7, Q9
Simplex Stop and Wait Protocol for an Error-free channel Q1, Q3, Q9
Simplex Stop and Wait Protocol for a Noisy Channel Q1, Q3, Q9
Sliding Window Protocols Q1, Q3 (Sliding Window Protocols), Q7, Q9
One Bit Sliding Window Protocol Q1, Q3 (Sliding Window Protocols), Q7, Q9
Protocol Using Go-Back-N Q1, Q3 (Go back NARQ), Q9
Protocol Using Selective Repeat Q1, Q3 (Selective repeat ARQ), Q9
Error Control Q2, Q5, Q6, Q8, Q10
Longitudinal Redundancy Check Q2
Polynomial Checksum Q6
Hamming Code Q8
Vertical Redundancy check Q10
Multiplexing Q4
Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing Q4

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NIMRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS
CLASS: M.C.A - 1 (SEM 2) Max. MARKS: 14

UNIT - 2

QUESTIONS TO BE COVERED

Q1. Compare the merits and demerits of Stop and Wait Protocol and
Sliding Window Protocol.

Q2. Consider a 32-bit block of data 11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001

that has to be transmitted. If Longitudinal Redundancy Check is used
what is the transmitted bit stream?

Q3. Discuss about the following:

i. Go back NARQ.
ii. Selective repeat ARQ.

Q4. Explain in detail about the synchronous time division multiplexing.

Q5. What are the various types of error detection methods?

Q6. Calculate the polynomial checksum for the following frame and
generator.

Frame: 110101101 land Generator: x4+x+1

Q7. Explain Sliding window protocols in detail.

Q8. Explain how hamming code can be used to correct burst errors.

Q9. Discuss sliding window protocol using Go back n.

Q10. What kinds of can Vertical Redundancy check determine? What kinds
of errors it cannot determine?

Q11. How does a Token Ring LAN operate? Discuss.

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Data Link Layer Topics

Q1. Compare the merits and demerits of Stop and Wait Protocol and Sliding Window Protocol.
Q3. Discuss about the following:
i. Go back NARQ.
ii. Selec ve repeat ARQ.
Q7. Explain Sliding window protocols in detail.
Q9. Discuss sliding window protocol using Go back n.

Error Control
Q2. Consider a 32-bit block of data 11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001 that has to be
transmi ed. If Longitudinal Redundancy Check is used what is the transmi ed bit stream?
Q5. What are the various types of error detec on methods?
Q6. Calculate the polynomial checksum for the following frame and generator.
Frame: 110101101 land Generator: x4+x+1
Q8. Explain how hamming code can be used to correct burst errors.
Q10. What kinds of can Ver cal Redundancy check determine? What kinds of errors it cannot
determine?

Multiplexing

Q4. Explain in detail about the synchronous me division mul plexing.

Others (Network Layer Interaction)

Q11. How does a Token Ring LAN operate? Discuss.

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Data Link Layer Topics

Q1. Compare the merits and demerits of Stop and Wait Protocol and Sliding Window Protocol.
ANSWER
Stop-and-Wait Protocol and Sliding Window Protocol are both used in data
communication for managing the flow of data between sender and receiver. Each
protocol has its own set of merits and demerits:

Stop-and-Wait Protocol:

Merits:

 Simplicity:

 Reliable:

 Flow Control:

 Error Detection:

Demerits:

 Low Efficiency:

 High Latency:

 Limited Throughput:

 Inefficient for Large Distances:

Sliding Window Protocol:

Merits:

 Improved Throughput:

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 Reduced Latency:

 Flow Control:

 Efficient for Large Networks:

Demerits:

 Complexity:

 Higher Overhead:

 Increased Risk of Errors:

 Synchronization Issues:

Q3. Discuss about the following:

i. Go back NARQ.
ii. Selec ve repeat ARQ.
Answer

i. Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):

Go-Back-N ARQ is a protocol used in data communication for reliable
transmission over unreliable networks. It operates by allowing the sender to
transmit a continuous stream of packets without waiting for individual
acknowledgments for each packet. Instead, it waits for a cumulative
acknowledgment from the receiver.

 Transmission Window:

 Cumulative Acknowledgment:
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 Retransmission:

 Efficiency:

ii. Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):

Selective Repeat ARQ is another reliable data transmission protocol that

allows the receiver to individually acknowledge each successfully received
packet.

 Individual Acknowledgment:

 Transmission Window:

 Retransmission:

 Efficiency:

Both Go-Back-N ARQ and Selective Repeat ARQ are widely used in various network protocols, with each having its
advantages and trade-offs in terms of simplicity, efficiency, and reliability in different network conditions.

Q7. Explain Sliding window protocols in detail.

ANSWER

Sliding Window Protocol:

The sliding window is a technique for sending multiple frames at a time. It controls the data packets
between the two devices where reliable and gradual delivery of data frames is needed. It is also used in TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol).
In this technique, each frame has sent from the sequence number. The sequence numbers are used
to find the missing data in the receiver end. The purpose of the sliding window technique is to avoid duplicate
data, so it uses the sequence number.

Types of Sliding Window Protocol

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Sliding window protocol has two types:

Sliding Window

Go-Back-N ARQ Selec ve Repeat ARQ

i. Go-Back-N ARQ

fig 7.1: The design of the Go-Back-N ARQ protocol

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Fig7.2: The example of Go-Back-N ARQ

ii. Selective Repeat ARQ

fig 7.3: The design of the Selective Repeat ARQ protocol

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Fig 7.4: Example of the Selective Repeat ARQ protocol

Q9. Discuss sliding window protocol using Go back n.

ANSWER

Sliding window protocol with Go-Back-N (GBN) is a technique used in computer networks to ensure
reliable data transmission between a sender and a receiver. The sliding window protocol allows for multiple
packets to be in transit simultaneously, enhancing network efficiency. Here's how it works:

 Window Size:

 Sequence Numbers:

 Go-Back-N:

 Sliding Window:
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 Sender Operation:

 Receiver Operation:

 Timeouts:

Error Control
Q2. Consider a 32-bit block of data 11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001 that has to be
transmi ed. If Longitudinal Redundancy Check is used what is the transmi ed bit stream?
ANSWER

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

All Zeros if Even 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Q5. What are the various types of error detec on methods?

ANSWER

Error detection methods are techniques used to identify errors or discrepancies in data transmission or
storage. Here are some common types:

 Parity Checking:
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 Checksums:

 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):

 Hamming Codes:

 Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC):

 Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC):

Q6. Calculate the polynomial checksum for the following frame and generator.
Frame: 110101101 land Generator: x4+x+1
ANSWER

To calculate the polynomial checksum for the given frame using the generator polynomial x4 + x + 1,
we'll perform polynomial long division. Here's how it's done:


o Frame: 110101101110101101
o Generator: 1001110011


o Frame: 110101101000110101101000
 Perform polynomial long division:

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 1010000010100000.

Q8. Explain how hamming code can be used to correct burst errors.
ANSWER
Hamming codes are a type of error-correcting code used in digital communication systems,
including computer networks, to detect and correct errors that may occur during transmission. One of the
advantages of Hamming codes is their ability to correct both single-bit errors and certain types of burst
errors.

Burst errors refer to consecutive bits that are corrupted during transmission, which can occur due to various
factors such as electrical interference or noise in the communication channel. Hamming codes can correct
burst errors by incorporating redundancy into the transmitted data.

Here's a simplified explanation of how Hamming codes work to correct burst errors:

 Encoding:

 Adding Redundancy:

 Error Detection:

 Error Correction:

 Recovery:

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Hamming codes enhance the reliability of communication in computer networks by providing error
detection and correction capabilities, including the correction of burst errors. However, it's important to
note that the effectiveness of Hamming codes in correcting burst errors depends on the specific design
parameters of the code and the characteristics of the communication channel.

Q10. What kinds of can Ver cal Redundancy check determine? What kinds of errors it cannot
determine?
ANSWER

Vertical Redundancy Check is also known as Parity Check. In this method, a redundant bit also called parity
bit is added to each data unit. This method includes even parity and odd parity. Even parity means the total
number of 1s in data is to be even and odd parity means the total number of 1s in data is to be odd.

Example -

Fig 10.1: Even parity VRC

Parity generator will count number of 1s in data unit and will add parity bit. In the above example, number
of 1s in data unit is 5, parity generator appends a parity bit 1 to this data unit making the total number of
1s even i.e 6 which is clear from above figure. Data along with parity bit is then transmitted across the
network. In this case, 11001111 will be transmitted. At the destination, this data is passed to parity checker
at the destination. The number of 1s in data is counted by parity checker. If the number of 1s count out to
be odd, e.g. 5 or 7 then destination will come to know that there is some error in the data. The receiver then
rejects such an erroneous data unit.

Advantages :







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Disadvantages :

Fig10.2: Erroneous data accepted by receiver with number of changed bits

Multiplexing
Q4. Explain in detail about the synchronous me division mul plexing.
ANSWER
Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously over a single communication channel by dividing the channel into discrete time slots. Each
signal is allocated a specific time slot, and these time slots are arranged in a sequential manner.
Synchronous TDM ensures that each signal is transmitted in a synchronized manner, allowing for efficient
multiplexing and demultiplexing of data.

Here's a detailed explanation of how synchronous TDM works:

 Channel Division:

 Signal Sampling:

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 Time Slot Allocation:

 Multiplexing:

 Transmission:

 Demultiplexing:

 Reconstruction:

 Synchronization:

Synchronous TDM offers several advantages:

 Efficiency:

 Low Latency:

 Simple Implementation:

Others (Network Layer Interaction)

Q11. How does a Token Ring LAN operate? Discuss.
ANSWER
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A Token Ring LAN (Local Area Network) operates on a ring topology where each device in the
network is connected to two neighboring devices, forming a closed loop or ring. The key concept behind
Token Ring is the passing of a token, a special control frame, around the network to regulate access to the
shared communication medium.

Here's how a Token Ring LAN operates:

 Token Passing:

 Access Control:

 Frame Format:

 Token Passing Protocol:

 Fault Tolerance:

 Media Access Control:

 Performance:

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Note: The time taken by a single bit to travel around the ring is known as ring latency.

Where,
d = length of the ring
v = velocity of data in ring
N = no. of stations in ring
b = time taken by e

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NIMRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS
CLASS: M.C.A - 1 (SEM 2) Max. MARKS: 14

UNIT - 3

SYLLABUS TO BE COVERED

The Medium Access Control Sub layer:

The Channel Allocation Problem-Static Channel Allocation-Assumptions for Dynamic
Channel Allocation, Multiple Access Protocols-Aloha-Pure aloha- slotted aloha-Carrier
Sense Multiple Access Protocols- Collision-Free Protocols-Limited Contention
Protocols.

Wireless LAN Protocols:

Ethernet-Classic Ethernet Physical Layer-Classic Ethernet MAC Sub-Layer Protocol-
Ethernet Performance-Fast Ethernet- Wireless LANs-The 802.11 Architecture and
Protocol Stack-The 802.11 Physical Layer-The802.11 MAC Sub-layer Protocol- The
805.11 Frame Structure-Services.

Syllabus Covered Topics Uncovered Concepts

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Detailed workings of specific
Protocols (Q1) CSMA protocols (e.g., CSMA/CA)
Medium Access Dynamic Channel Allocation (Q2) Other multiple access protocols
such as token passing
Control Sublayer Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA (Q5)
Carrier sense multiple access with
collision Detection (CSMA/CD) (Q9)
Controlled Access Protocols (Q10, Q12)
Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Advanced features and
Gigabit Ethernet (Q3) variations of Ethernet
standards
Architecture of 802.11 (Q4) Security protocols and
mechanisms in wireless LANs
Wireless LAN MAC layer functions of IEEE 802.11 (Q6) Quality of Service (QoS)
Protocols considerations in wireless LANs
Frame format, operation, and ring Interference mitigation
maintenance feature of IEEE 802.5 MAC techniques in wireless LANs
protocol (Q7)
Key requirements for wireless LANs (Q8) Emerging trends and
technologies in LAN protocols
Common Ethernet Implementations (Q11)

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NIMRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS
CLASS: M.C.A - 1 (SEM 2) Max. MARKS: 14

UNIT - 3

QUESTIONS TO BE COVERED

Q1. Explain about the Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols.

Q2. What is Dynamic Channel Allocation? What are the assumptions for
Dynamic Channel Allocation?

Q3. What is fast Ethernet, gigabit Ethernet and 10 gigabit Ethernet?

Compare them.

Q4. Discuss about the architecture of 802.11.

Q5. What is pure ALOHA and slotted ALOHA? Consider the delay of both at
low load, which one is less? Explain your answer.

Q6. Discuss the MAC layer functions of IEEE 802.11.

Q7. Explain the frame format, operation and ring maintenance feature of
IEEE 802.5 MAC protocol.

Q8. Briefly define key requirements for wireless LANs.

Q9. Describe the working principle of Carrier sense multiple access with
collision Detection (CSMA/CD).

Q10. Distinguish between pure ALOHA and slotted ALOHA.

Q11. What are the common Ethernet Implementations? Explain them.

Q12. Explain different controlled access protocols in detail.

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols (CSMA)

Q1. Explain about the Carrier Sense Mul ple Access Protocols.
Q9. Describe the working principle of Carrier sense mul ple access with collision
Detec on (CSMA/CD).

Dynamic Channel Allocation

Q2. What is Dynamic Channel Alloca on? What are the assump ons for Dynamic Channel
Alloca on?

Ethernet

Q3. What is fast Ethernet, gigabit Ethernet and 10 gigabit Ethernet? Compare them.
Q11. What are the common Ethernet Implementa ons? Explain them.

Wireless LAN Protocols (802.11)

Q4. Discuss about the architecture of 802.11.

Q6. Discuss the MAC layer func ons of IEEE 802.11.
Q8. Briefly define key requirements for wireless LANs.

ALOHA Protocols

Q5. What is pure ALOHA and slo ed ALOHA? Consider the delay of both at low load,
which one is less? Explain your answer.
Q10. Dis nguish between pure ALOHA and slo ed ALOHA.

IEEE 802.5 MAC Protocol (Token Ring)

Q7. Explain the frame format, opera on and ring maintenance feature of IEEE 802.5 MAC
protocol.

Controlled Access Protocols

Q12. Explain different controlled access protocols in detail.

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols (CSMA)

Q1. Explain about the Carrier Sense Mul ple Access Protocols.
ANSWER
CSMA

CSMA Varia ons

CAMA/CD

CAMA/CA

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) protocols are a class of methods used in computer networks to
regulate how multiple devices share a communication medium, such as a cable or wireless spectrum. The
fundamental principle behind CSMA protocols is that before transmitting data, a device listens to the
communication medium to detect whether it's currently in use by another device. If the medium is busy, the
device waits for a clear window before attempting to transmit its data.

There are several variants of CSMA protocols:

 CSMA:

 CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection):

 CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance):

CSMA protocols are efficient in regulating access to shared communication mediums and are widely used in
various networking technologies to ensure fair and reliable data transmission. However, they may suffer from
inefficiencies in highly congested or noisy environments, leading to increased latency and reduced throughput.

Q9. Describe the working principle of Carrier sense mul ple access with collision Detec on
(CSMA/CD).

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ANSWER

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is a network protocol used in Ethernet
networks to manage how devices access the shared communication medium (such as a coaxial cable or a
twisted pair cable). The protocol ensures efficient and fair transmission of data among multiple devices
connected to the same network segment. Here's how it works:

 Carrier Sense:

 Multiple Access:

 Collision Detection:

 Backoff and Retransmission:

 Exponential Backoff:

Dynamic Channel Allocation

Q2. What is Dynamic Channel Alloca on? What are the assump ons for Dynamic Channel
Alloca on?
ANSWER

Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA) is a technique used in telecommunications and networking to

optimize the allocation of communication channels dynamically based on demand and varying conditions.
It is commonly employed in wireless communication systems where the available frequency spectrum is
divided into channels, and these channels are assigned to users or devices as needed.

The primary goal of Dynamic Channel Allocation is to efficiently utilize the available spectrum
resources while meeting the quality of service (QoS) requirements of users. This is achieved by dynamically

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assigning channels to users based on factors such as channel availability, signal strength, interference levels,
traffic load, and user priority.

Assumptions for Dynamic Channel Allocation typically include:

 Dynamic Channel Availability:

 Real-time Monitoring:

 Dynamic User Behaviour:

 Quality of Service (QoS) Requirements:

 Interference Management:

 Efficient Spectrum Utilization:

Ethernet
Q3. What is fast Ethernet, gigabit Ethernet and 10 gigabit Ethernet? Compare them.
ANSWER

Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and 10 Gigabit Ethernet are three different standards of Ethernet
technology, each offering varying speeds and capabilities. Here's a comparison of these three:

 Fast Ethernet:





 Gigabit Ethernet:


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


 10 Gigabit Ethernet:





Feature Fast Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet 10 Gigabit Ethernet

Maximum Speed
Cable Type
Maximum Cable
Length
Full Duplex
Half Duplex
Collision Detection
Compatibility

Typical Use

Q11. What are the common Ethernet Implementa ons? Explain them.
ANSWER

Common Ethernet implementations refer to the various standards and technologies used to transmit data
over Ethernet networks. These implementations define the physical and data link layers of the OSI model,
ensuring compatibility and interoperability among different networking devices. Here are some of the most
common Ethernet implementations:

 Ethernet (10BASE-T):


 Fast Ethernet (100BASE-TX):

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


 Gigabit Ethernet (1000BASE-T):



 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10GBASE-T):



 Ethernet over Fiber (e.g., 1000BASE-SX, 1000BASE-LX):



 Power over Ethernet (PoE):



Wireless LAN Protocols (802.11)

Q4. Discuss about the architecture of 802.11.
ANSWER

The 802.11 architecture, commonly known as Wi-Fi, is a set of protocols for wireless local area
networking (WLAN) developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). It defines the
standards for wireless communication in various frequency bands including 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz.

Here's a breakdown of the key components of the 802.11 architecture:

 Wireless Stations (STA):



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 Access Point (AP):



 Basic Service Set (BSS):





 Extended Service Set (ESS):




 Service Set Identifier (SSID):




 Basic Service Area (BSA):



 Medium Access Control (MAC) Layer:



 Physical Layer (PHY):



 802.11 Standards:


Fig 4.1: BSS and ESS configuration of IEEE 802.11 WLAN

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Q6. Discuss the MAC layer func ons of IEEE 802.11.

ANSWER

The Medium Access Control (MAC) layer in the IEEE 802.11 standard plays a crucial role in managing access
to the wireless medium and ensuring efficient communication among devices within a wireless network.
Here are the key functions of the MAC layer in IEEE 802.11:

 Channel Access:

 Frame Management:

 Authentication and Association:

 Power Management:

 Quality of Service (QoS):

 Frame Acknowledgment:

 Fragmentation and Reassembly:

 Error Handling:

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Q8. Briefly define key requirements for wireless LANs.

ANSWER

Key requirements for wireless LANs include:

 Coverage:

 Bandwidth:

 Security:

 Scalability:

 Interference Mitigation:

 Quality of Service (QoS):

 Roaming Support:

 Management and Monitoring:

ALOHA Protocols
Q5. What is pure ALOHA and slo ed ALOHA? Consider the delay of both at low load, which one is
less? Explain your answer.
ANSWER

Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA are both multiple access protocols used in data communication systems,
particularly in the context of shared communication channels. They were developed to manage the
transmission of data from multiple users or stations accessing the channel simultaneously.

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 Pure ALOHA:

 Slotted ALOHA:

Delay Comparison at Low Load:

At low loads, there are fewer stations attempting to transmit data, resulting in less congestion and lower
chances of collisions. In this scenario:

 Pure ALOHA:

 Slotted ALOHA:

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Q10. Dis nguish between pure ALOHA and slo ed ALOHA.

ANSWER

Difference between Pure Aloha and Slotted Aloha

The following table highlights the important differences between Pure Aloha and Slotted Aloha.

Key Pure Aloha Slotted Aloha

Time Slot

Time

Vulnerable
time

Probability
𝑆 =𝐺×𝑒 𝑆 =𝐺×𝑒

Maximum
efficiency
Number of
collisions

IEEE 802.5 MAC Protocol (Token Ring)

Q7. Explain the frame format, opera on and ring maintenance feature of IEEE 802.5 MAC protocol.
ANSWER

IEEE 802.5 is a standard for token ring networks, defining the Media Access Control (MAC) protocol for
these networks. Here's an explanation of the frame format, operation, and ring maintenance feature of IEEE
802.5:

1. Frame Format:

 Starting Delimiter (SD):
 Access Control (AC):

 Frame Control (FC):

 Destination Address (DA):

 Source Address (SA):

 Data (Information):
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 Frame Check Sequence (FCS):

 Ending Delimiter (ED):
2. Operation:


3. Ring Maintenance Feature:



Controlled Access Protocols

Q12. Explain different controlled access protocols in detail.
ANSWER

Controlled access protocols are used in computer networks to regulate the access of devices to the network
medium in an orderly manner. These protocols ensure that only one device can transmit data at a time,
thereby preventing collisions and maintaining efficient communication. Here are some of the main
controlled access protocols:

1. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA):

 Basic CSMA:

 CSMA/CD (Collision Detection):

 CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance):

2. Token Passing:


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3. Reservation-based Protocols:


4. Polling:





5. Priority-based Protocols:


6. Round Robin:



7. Controlled Access with Reservation:


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NIMRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS
CLASS: M.C.A - 1 (SEM 2) Max. MARKS: 14

UNIT - 4

SYLLABUS TO BE COVERED

The Network Layer Design Issues:

Store and Forward Packet Switching-Services Provided to the Transport layer-

Implementation of Connectionless Service-Implementation of Connection Oriented
Service- Comparison of Virtual Circuit and Datagram Networks, Routing Algorithms-
The Optimality principle-Shortest path, Flooding, Distance vector, Link state,
Hierarchical. Congestion Control algorithms-General principles of congestion control,
Congestion prevention polices, Approaches to Congestion Control-Traffic Aware
Routing- Admission Control-Traffic Throttling-Load Shedding.

Internet Working:
How networks differ- How networks can be connected- Tunneling, internetwork
routing-, Fragmentation, network layer in the internet – IP protocols-IP Version 4
protocol-, IP addresses-, Subnets-IP Version 6-The main IPV6 header- Internet control
protocols- ICMP-ARP-DHCP

Covered Concepts Uncovered Concepts

1. The IP Version 4 Protocol (Q1) 1. Store and Forward Packet Switching
2. ICMP (Q2) 2. Services Provided to the Transport layer
3. Hierarchical Routing (Q3i) 3. Implementation of Connectionless Service
4. Comparison of Virtual Circuit and Datagram
4. Internet control protocols (Q3ii)
Networks
5. Distance vector routing (Q4) 5. The Optimality principle
6. Prevention policies of congestion (Q5) 6. Shortest path
7. Connection-Oriented Services implementation (Q7) 7. Flooding
8. Network layer design issues (Q8) 8. Link state
9. Congestion prevention policies (Q9) 9. Traffic Aware Routing
10. Tunneling (Q10) 10. Admission Control
11. Limitations of Distance vector and Link state routing
11. Traffic Throttling
algorithms (Q11)
12. Load Shedding
13. Internetwork routing
14. Fragmentation
15. Network layer in the internet
16. IP addresses
17. Subnets
18. IP Version 6
19. The main IPV6 header
20. Internet Control Protocols: ARP, DHCP

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NIMRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS
CLASS: M.C.A - 1 (SEM 2) Max. MARKS: 14

UNIT - 4

QUESTIONS TO BE COVERED

Q1. Explain about The IP Version 4 Protocol.

Q2. What is ICMP? Explain about ICMP.

Q3. Discuss about the following:

i. Hierarchical Routing
ii. Internet control protocols

Q4. With an example, explain the distance vector routing.

Q5. Explain the prevention polices of congestion.

Q6. In what way a selecting flooding differs from flooding. Explain.

Q7. How is the Connection - Oriented Services implemented? Explain.

Q8. What are the network layer design issues? Explain.

Q9. Discuss about Congestion prevention polices.

Q10. What is Tunneling? Explain in detail.

Q11. Mention the limitations of Distance vector and Link state routing
algorithm.

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Network Layer Design Issues

Q7. How is the Connec on - Oriented Services implemented? Explain.

Q8. What are the network layer design issues? Explain.
Q9. Discuss about Conges on preven on polices.
Q10. What is Tunneling? Explain in detail.
Q11. Men on the limita ons of Distance vector and Link state rou ng algorithm.

Routing Algorithms

Q4. With an example, explain the distance vector rou ng.

Q6. In what way a selec ng flooding differs from flooding. Explain.

Internet Working

Q1. Explain about The IP Version 4 Protocol.

Q2. What is ICMP? Explain about ICMP.
Q3. Discuss about the following:
i. Hierarchical Rou ng
ii. Internet control protocols

Congestion Control Algorithms

Q5. Explain the preven on polices of conges on.

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Network Layer Design Issues

Q7. How is the Connec on - Oriented Services implemented? Explain.
ANSWER

Connection-oriented services are implemented using protocols and algorithms designed to establish,
maintain, and terminate reliable communication channels between networked devices. These services
ensure data delivery with guaranteed order and integrity, typically through a combination of mechanisms
such as acknowledgment, sequencing, and error detection/correction. Here's how it's typically
implemented:

 Connection Establishment:

 Reliable Data Transfer:

 Flow Control:

 Error Detection and Correction:

 Connection Termination:

Q8. What are the network layer design issues? Explain.

ANSWER

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The network layer, also known as Layer 3 in the OSI model, plays a crucial role in the process of data
communication by providing logical addressing, routing, and forwarding functions. Several design issues
need to be considered when designing a network layer protocol.

Here are some of the key issues:

 Addressing:

 Routing:

 Forwarding:

 Packet Switching vs. Circuit Switching:

 Quality of Service (QoS):

 Scalability:

 Interoperability:

 Security:

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Q9. Discuss about Conges on preven on polices.

ANSWER

Congestion prevention policies are crucial in computer networks to ensure efficient and reliable data
transmission. Congestion occurs when the demand for network resources exceeds the available capacity,
leading to degraded performance, packet loss, and increased latency.

To address congestion, various preventive measures are employed:

 Traffic shaping:

 Quality of Service (QoS):

 Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP):

 Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN):

 Load balancing:

 Packet dropping policies:

 Congestion-aware routing protocols:

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 Capacity planning:

Q10. What is Tunneling? Explain in detail.

ANSWER
Tunneling, in the context of computer networking and security, refers to the process of encapsulating one
network protocol within another network protocol. It allows data to be transmitted securely across a public
network by creating a private, encrypted connection within that network.

Here's a detailed explanation of how tunneling works:

 Encapsulation:

 Protocol Stacks:

 Tunneling Protocols:

Some common tunneling protocols include:

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 Encryption and Authentication:

 Use Cases:

Some typical use cases include:





Fig 10.1: Tunneling

Q11. Men on the limita ons of Distance vector and Link state rou ng algorithm.
ANSWER
Distance Vector Routing:

 Count-to-Infinity Problem:

 Slow Convergence:

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 Routing Loops:

 Routing Information Consumption:

Link State Routing:

 Scalability:

 Resource Consumption:

 Initial Flooding:

 Vulnerability to Attacks:

Routing Algorithms
Q4. With an example, explain the distance vector rou ng.
ANSWER
How Distance Vector Routing Protocol Works :
The Distance Vector Routing protocol follows these basic steps:

1. Initialization:

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2. Sending distance vectors:

3. Updating distance vectors:

4. Calculating best path:

5. Periodic updates:

6. Convergence:

Example of Distance Vector Routing

In the network shown below, there are three routers, A, C, and D, with the following weights − AC
=8, CD =4, and DA =3.

Step 1 − Each router in this DVR(Distance Vector Routing) network shares its routing table with
every neighbor. For example, A will share its routing table with neighbors C and D, and neighbors
C and D will share their routing table with A.

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Step 2 − If the path via a neighbor is less expensive, the router adjusts its local table to send
packets to the neighbor. In this table, the router updates the lower cost for A and C by updating
the new weight from 8 to 7 in router A and from 8 to 7 in router C.

Step 3 − The final revised routing table with the reduced cost distance vector routing protocol for
all routers A, C, and D is shown below-

Q6. In what way a selec ng flooding differs from flooding. Explain.

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ANSWER

Selecting flooding and flooding are both techniques used in networking, particularly in the context of
routing in computer networks. Here's how they differ:

 Flooding:


 Selective Flooding:


Conclusion:

While both flooding and selective flooding involve broadcasting packets to

multiple nodes in a network, selective flooding adds a layer of intelligence to
the process by allowing nodes to make informed decisions about which neighbors
to forward packets to, thereby potentially improving network efficiency and
reducing unnecessary traffic.

Internet Working
Q1. Explain about The IP Version 4 Protocol.
ANSWER

Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is a fundamental protocol used for communication on the internet. It's the
fourth version in the Internet Protocol (IP) family and is widely deployed across the globe. IPv4 provides the
framework for addressing and routing packets of data so that they can travel across networks and reach
their intended destinations.

Here are some key aspects of IPv4:

 Addressing:

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 Packet Structure:

 Routing:

 Fragmentation and Reassembly:

 Subnetting:

 Network Classes:

 Address Exhaustion:

Q2. What is ICMP? Explain about ICMP.

ANSWER

ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is a protocol used in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite to
report errors and exchange control messages. ICMP is primarily used by network devices, like routers, to
communicate error messages or informational messages to other devices in the network.

Some common uses of ICMP include:

 Error Reporting:

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 Ping:

 Network Troubleshooting:

 Path MTU Discovery:

 Router Discovery:

ICMP Packet Format

ICMP header comes after IPv4 and IPv6 packet header.

Fig 2.1: ICMPv4 Packet Format

In the ICMP packet format, the first 32 bits of the packet contain three fields:

Type (8-bit):

Some common message types are as follows:

 Type 0 – Echo reply

 Type 3 – Destination unreachable
 Type 5 – Redirect Message
 Type 8 – Echo Request
 Type 11 – Time Exceeded
 Type 12 – Parameter problem

Code (8-bit):

Checksum (16-bit):

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The next 32 bits of the ICMP Header are Extended Header which has the work of pointing out the problem in
IP Message. Byte locations are identified by the pointer which causes the problem message and receiving
device looks here for pointing to the problem.

The last part of the ICMP packet is Data or Payload of variable length. The bytes included in IPv4 are 576
bytes and in IPv6, 1280 bytes.

Q3. Discuss about the following:

i. Hierarchical Rou ng
ii. Internet control protocols
ANSWER

i. Hierarchical Routing:

ii. Internet Control Protocols:

Internet Control Protocols (ICPs) are a set of protocols and standards used to manage and control
various aspects of internet infrastructure and operations. These protocols play a crucial role in ensuring
the smooth and efficient functioning of the internet by facilitating tasks such as routing management,
network monitoring, and resource allocation.

Some common examples of Internet Control Protocols include:

 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP):

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 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP):

 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP):

 Quality of Service (QoS) Protocols:

Congestion Control Algorithms

Q5. Explain the preven on polices of conges on.
ANSWER
Prevention policies for congestion aim to alleviate or avoid traffic congestion in various transportation
systems such as road networks, public transit, and air travel. These policies typically involve a combination
of strategies and measures designed to manage traffic flow efficiently and reduce the likelihood of
congestion occurring.

Here are some common prevention policies:

 Investment in Infrastructure:

 Public Transit Improvement:

 Promotion of Active Transportation:

 Traffic Management Measures:

 Transportation Demand Management (TDM):

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 Land Use Planning:

 Parking Management:

 Information and Communication Technologies (ICT):

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NIMRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS
CLASS: M.C.A - 1 (SEM 2) Max. MARKS: 14

UNIT - 5

SYLLABUS TO BE COVERED

The Transport Layer

Transport layer protocols:

Transmission control protocol:

Application Layer
World Wide Web:

Domain Name System:

Covered Concepts Uncovered Concepts

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NIMRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS
CLASS: M.C.A - 1 (SEM 2) Max. MARKS: 14

UNIT - 5

QUESTIONS TO BE COVERED

Q1. Explain the duties of Transport layer.

Q2. Explain DNS with reference to its components and working.

Q3. Discuss the applications of UDP.

Q4. Compare the HTTP and FTTP.

Q5. What are the properties of HTTP? What are the four groups of HTTP
header? Explain.

Q6. Explain the architecture and services of e-mailing system.

Q7. Explain the TCP header and working of the TCP protocol.

Q8. Discuss how simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) works? Can
multimedia messages be transmitted using SMTP? Discuss.

Q9. What are the functions of transport layer? State transport service
primitives.

Q10. Describe importance of DNS in application layer.

Q11. Give the format of the UDP segment and TCP segment? Explain when
UDP is preferred to TCP.

Q12. Define FTP. Discuss in brief about FTP.

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Transport Layer

Q1. Explain the du es of Transport layer.

Q9. What are the func ons of transport layer? State transport service primi ves.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and its Applications

Q3. Discuss the applica ons of UDP.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Q7. Explain the TCP header and working of the TCP protocol.

Application Layer - World Wide Web (WWW)

Q4. Compare the HTTP and FTTP.

Q5. What are the proper es of HTTP? What are the four groups of HTTP header? Explain.
Q6. Explain the architecture and services of e-mailing system.
Q8. Discuss how simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) works? Can mul media messages
be transmi ed using SMTP? Discuss.

Domain Name System (DNS)

Q2. Explain DNS with reference to its components and working.

Q10. Describe importance of DNS in applica on layer.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

Q12. Define FTP. Discuss in brief about FTP.

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Transport Layer
Q1. Explain the du es of Transport layer.
ANSWER

The Transport layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is responsible for facilitating
communication between devices across a network. It ensures that data is reliably transmitted from the
source to the destination, regardless of the underlying network infrastructure.

The primary duties of the Transport layer include:

 Segmentation and Reassembly:

 End-to-End Communication:

 Error Detection and Correction:

 Flow Control:

 Congestion Control:

 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing:

 Port Addressing:

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Q9. What are the func ons of transport layer? State transport service primi ves.
ANSWER
The transport layer in a computer network plays a crucial role in ensuring reliable and efficient
communication between hosts. Its primary functions include:

 Segmentation and Reassembly:

 End-to-End Connection:

 Flow Control:

 Error Control:

 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing:

The transport service primitives define the interface between the transport layer and the upper layers
(session, presentation, and application).

These primitives include:

 Connect:

 Disconnect:

 Send:

 Receive:

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User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and its Applications

Q3. Discuss the applica ons of UDP.
ANSWER

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless protocol in the Internet Protocol suite. Unlike TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol), UDP does not establish a direct connection before sending data, nor does
it ensure delivery or guarantee the order of packets. Despite these limitations, UDP finds numerous
applications due to its simplicity, low overhead, and real-time capabilities.

Here are some key applications of UDP:

 Streaming Media:

 Voice over IP (VoIP):

 Online Gaming:

 DNS (Domain Name System):

 Internet of Things (IoT) Applications:

 Network Management Protocols:

 Real-Time Data Feeds:

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Conclusion:

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Q7. Explain the TCP header and working of the TCP protocol.
ANSWER

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a core protocol of the Internet Protocol Suite, responsible for
ensuring reliable and ordered delivery of data packets over networks. It operates at the transport layer of the
OSI model and provides a connection-oriented, point-to-point communication service between hosts.

TCP Header Structure:

The TCP header consists of various fields, each serving a specific purpose in facilitating communication
between sender and receiver.

Fig 7.1: TCP header structure

Here's a breakdown of the TCP header structure:

 Source Port (16 bits):

 Destination Port (16 bits):
 Sequence Number (32 bits):

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 Acknowledgment Number (32 bits):

 Data Offset (4 bits):

 Reserved (6 bits):
 Flags (6 bits):

 URG (Urgent Pointer):

 ACK (Acknowledgment):

 PSH (Push):
 RST (Reset):
 SYN (Synchronize):
 FIN (Finish):
 Window Size (16 bits):

 Checksum (16 bits):

 Urgent Pointer (16 bits):

 Options (Variable):

 Padding (Variable):

Working of TCP Protocol:

 Connection Establishment:



 Data Transfer:





 Connection Termination:




 Error Handling:


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Fig 7.2: Working of TCP Protocol

Application Layer - World Wide Web (WWW)

Q4. Compare the HTTP and FTTP.
ANSWER

HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and File Transfer Protocol(FTP) are the protocols used
for file transfer between client and server. There is a lot of difference between FTP and
HTTP. In this article, we will learn what are the differences between HTTP and FTP.

1. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) :

It stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is an internet standard that allows the process of file
downloading and uploading on different computers from the internet. FTP site consists of different
types of files(text, graphics, videos, images, etc). It was developed when security was not a big
issue. It is older and is being replaced with new protocols. FTP supports two separate Transmission
Control Protocols the first one is a control connection or command port (port 21 ) to authenticate
the user and the second one is a data connection or data port(port 20) to transfer the files. It
requires a specific username and password for access.

2. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) :

It stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. It is the backbone of WWW. It is an internet
standard that allows the process of transfer of web pages over the internet. It also defines how the
web browser will respond to any web request. The web address of all the web pages contains a
protocol, domain name, and path to the web page. Most of the web address contains http:// in
their URL to show the HTTP protocol. HTTP works similar to the combined functions of FTP and
SMTP. It also uses Transmission Control Protocol.

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Difference between FTP and HTTP:

S.NO. HTTP FTP

Q5. What are the proper es of HTTP? What are the four groups of HTTP header? Explain.
ANSWER

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the foundation of data communication on the World Wide Web. It is
a protocol that defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and how web servers and browsers
should respond to various commands.

Properties of HTTP:

 Statelessness:

 Connectionless:

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 Text-based:

 Flexibility:

HTTP headers are components of HTTP messages that provide additional information about the request or
response. They are key-value pairs separated by a colon, with the key and value separated by whitespace.

HTTP headers are divided into four groups:

 General headers: These headers provide general information about the message, such as the date
and time of the message and the protocol version being used.

Examples include:

 Date
 Cache-Control
 Connection
 Via
 Request headers: These headers provide additional information about the client's request, such as
the type of browser being used, the preferred language of the user, or authentication credentials.

Examples include:

 User-Agent
 Accept
 Authorization
 Host
 Response headers: These headers provide additional information about the server's response, such
as the content type of the response, the server software being used, or caching directives.

Examples include:

 Content-Type
 Server
 Content-Length
 Last-Modified
 Entity headers: These headers provide information about the body of the message, such as the
content length or encoding. They are only present in messages that have a body, such as POST
requests or responses with content.

Examples include:

 Content-Length
 Content-Encoding
 Content-Disposition
 Content-Language

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Q6. Explain the architecture and services of e-mailing system.

ANSWER

An email system consists of several key components that work together to facilitate the sending, receiving,
and management of electronic messages.

Here's an overview of the architecture and services typically involved in an email system:

 User Interface (UI):



 Mail Transfer Agent (MTA):



 Mail Delivery Agent (MDA):



 Mail Access Protocols:



Common mail access protocols include:

 POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3):

 IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol):

 Exchange ActiveSync:

 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):



 DNS (Domain Name System):



 Spam Filtering and Security:



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 Archiving and Backup:



Fig 6.1: Example

Q8. Discuss how simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) works? Can mul media messages be
transmi ed using SMTP? Discuss.
ANSWER

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a communication protocol used for sending email messages
between servers. It works on the application layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite. SMTP facilitates the transfer
of emails from a sender's email client or server to the recipient's email server.

Here's how it works:

 Establishing Connection:

 Handshake:

 Sender Verification:

 Recipient Verification:

 Message Transfer:

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 Delivery to Recipient:

Now, regarding the transmission of multimedia messages using SMTP:

SMTP was primarily designed for sending text-based email messages, and it does not natively support
multimedia content such as images, audio files, or videos. However, multimedia content can still be
transmitted via email using MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) within the SMTP framework.

MIME allows email messages to contain various types of data, including text, images, audio, video, and
other multimedia content. When sending a multimedia message, the content is encoded using MIME, and
then the encoded data is transmitted via SMTP.

Here's how multimedia messages are transmitted using SMTP and MIME:

 Content Encoding:

 Message Composition:

 SMTP Transmission:

 Recipient Delivery:

Domain Name System (DNS)

Q2. Explain DNS with reference to its components and working.
ANSWER

DNS, or Domain Name System, is a fundamental component of the internet infrastructure that translates
human-readable domain names into IP addresses, allowing computers to locate and connect to websites,
servers, and other resources on the internet.

Here's an overview of its components and how it works:

 Domain Names:

 Domain Name Registrar

 Domain Name System (DNS) Servers:

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There are several types of DNS servers, including:

 Root DNS Servers:

 Top-Level Domain (TLD) Nameservers:

 Authoritative Nameservers:

 Recursive Resolver:

 DNS Records:

Common types of DNS records include:

 A Record: Maps a domain name to an IPv4 address.

 AAAA Record: Maps a domain name to an IPv6 address.
 CNAME Record: Alias of one domain name to another.
 MX Record: Specifies mail servers responsible for receiving email on behalf of the domain.
 NS Record: Specifies the authoritative nameservers for the domain.

Working of DNS:

Q10. Describe importance of DNS in applica on layer.

ANSWER

The Domain Name System (DNS) plays a pivotal role in the application layer of the internet. Its significance
lies in translating human-readable domain names (like "example.com") into machine-readable IP addresses
(such as "192.0.2.1").

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Here's why DNS is important:

 Human-Readable Addresses:

 Global Accessibility:

 Load Distribution and Redundancy:

 Scalability:

 Name Resolution:

 Caching:

 Security:

 Service Discovery:

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FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

Q12. Define FTP. Discuss in brief about FTP.
ANSWER
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a standard network protocol used for transferring files between a
client and a server on a computer network. FTP operates on a client-server model where clients initiate
connections and request file transfers, while servers host the files and manage the transfer process.

Here's a brief overview of how FTP works:

 Client-Server Interaction:

 Authentication:

 File Transfer:

 Data Connection:

 Modes of FTP:

 Security:

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Diagram:

Fig 12.1: Diagram

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