BASIC OF NERVOUS

SYSTEM

Guided by-
Dr. Gaurav soni sir
 INTRODUCTION
● It is a chief controlling and coordinating system of body
● It controls and regulates all activities of body (voluntary or involuntary)
● Functions -
1. Reception
2. Integration
3. Response
HIERARCHY/DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system

PNS
CNS
Nerve fibres that arise from
Controlling centre for entire
Central part i.e.,12 pairs of
system
cranial nerve and 31 pairs of
(brain and spinal cord)
spinal nerves
 CNS

Brain Spinal cord

Forebrain
● Telencephalon
1. Cerebral cortex Midbrain Hindbrain
2. Basal ganglia ● Mesencephalon ● Rhomencephalon
3. Hippocampus 1. Tectum 1. Pons
4. Amygdala 2. Tegmentum 2. Cerebellum
● Diencephalon 3. Cerebral peduncles 3. Medulla oblangata
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
 PNS

Efferent/Motor
Afferent/sensory

Somatic nervous
system/cerebrospinal Autonomic nervous system
nervous system

Sympathetic nervous
Parasympathetic
system
(Craniosacral outflow)
(Thoracolumbar outflow)
● Afferent/Sensory - it means the neurons/nerve fibres carrying impulse from the
receptor in periphery of body to to central part.
● Efferent/Motor - the nerve fibres that carry impulse from central part to the
periphery of body such as muscles and glands.
● Somatic nervous system - (voluntary) somatic system produce movements only in
the skeletal muscles and under control of our conscious mind.
● Autonomic nervous system - ( involuntary) produced movement in smooth
muscle/cardiac muscle or glands and is not in our control of our conscious mind
 CELL TYPES OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

On the basis of excitability -

● Excitable cells - nerve cells/neurons

● Non excitable cells -
Neuroglia and ependymal - CNS

Schwann cells - PNS

NEURON
● Excitable cells
● Structural and functional unit of nervous system
● 100 billion
● Properties - excitability and conductivity

TYPICAL NEURON STRUCTURE

● Cell body/ Soma/ Perikaryon
● Dendrites
● Axon
● Axon terminals/ Synaptic terminals/ Telodendria
● Cell bodies of neurons form grey matter and nuclei in CNS and ganglia in
PNS.
● Cell processes (axons) from tracts in CNS and nerves in PNS.
 TYPES OF NEURON

1. According to number of processes-

a. Unipolar - eg. mesencephalic nucleus.

b. Pseudounipolar - eg. sensory ganglion or spinal ganglion.
c. Bipolar - eg. spiral and vestibular ganglia, bipolar neuron of retina.
d. Multipolar - eg. neurons of cerebellum and cerebrum.
2. According to relative length of axons and dendrites -

● Golgi type I neuron - long axon

● Golgi type II neuron - Short axon/ no axon

3. Functionally

● Sensory (Afferent)
● Motor (Efferent)

4. According to shape of cell body

● Pyramidal cell
● Pyriform cell
 NEUROGLIA
● Non excitable
● It give structural and functional support to neuron.
● 5-10 times more than neuron.

CLASSIFICATION OF NEUROGLIA

A. Neuroglia in CNS -
1. Macroglia - astrocyte , oligodendrocyte, ependymal cells .
2. Microglia

B. Neuroglia in PNS

1. Schwann cells
2. Satellite cells
1. Astrocytes: Provide physical support, maintain the blood-brain barrier, and
regulate the chemical environment around neurons.

2. Oligodendrocytes: Produce myelin, a fatty substance that insulates and

protects axons in the central nervous system.

3. Microglia: Act as immune cells, monitoring the nervous system for pathogens
and debris, and playing a role in neuroinflammation.

4. Ependymal cells: Line the ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord,
producing cerebrospinal fluid and helping to circulate it.

6. Schwann cells: Produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system.

7. Satellite cells: Surround and support neurons in sensory ganglia.

 Functions of neuroglia

1. Physical Support
2. Maintenance of Blood-Brain Barrier
3. Supply of Nutrients
4. Removal of Waste Products
5. Regulation of Ion Concentrations
6. Immune Response
7. Phagocytosis
8. Modulation of Synaptic Transmission
9. Release of neurotransmitters
10. Repair of Damaged Tissue
 BLOOD- BRAIN BARRIER
The Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) is a specialized network of blood vessels that supplies the
brain with oxygen and nutrients while protecting it from harmful substances, pathogens,
and toxins.

The BBB consists of:

1. Endothelial cells : These cells line the blood vessels and form tight junctions, creating
a physical barrier.

2. Astrocytes : These glial cells surround the blood vessels and regulate the exchange of
substances.

3. Pericytes : These cells wrap around the blood vessels and help maintain the integrity
of the BBB.
 Area in brain don't have BBB

● Portion of hypothalamus
● Pineal gland
● Pituitary
● Choroid plexus
● Area postrema
FUNCTION OF BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER

1. _Protection_: Prevents the entry of toxins, pathogens, and inflammatory cells into the brain.

2. _Regulation_: Controls the exchange of substances, such as nutrients, hormones, and waste products.

3. _Maintenance_: Helps maintain the brain's internal environment, including the regulation of ion
concentrations and pH
 REFLEX ARC
Reflex – fast, preprogrammed, inborn, automatic involuntary response.
A reflex arc is a neural pathway that mediates a reflex action, which is an automatic and
involuntary response to a stimulus. The reflex arc consists of five main components:
Components of a Reflex Arc -
1. Sensory Receptor : Detects the stimulus and sends a signal to the nervous system.
2. Afferent Neuron (Sensory Neuron) : Transmits the signal from the sensory receptor to the
central nervous system (CNS).
3. Integration Center (Central Nervous System) : Processes the signal and determines the
response. This can occur in the spinal cord or brain.
4. Efferent Neuron (Motor Neuron) : Transmits the signal from the integration center to the
effector organ.
5. Effector Organ : Responds to the signal by performing an action, such as muscle
contraction or gland secretion.
 MONOSYNAPTIC REFLEX
A monosynaptic reflex is a type of reflex arc that involves only one synapse between the
afferent neuron and the efferent neuron.
Example -
knee-jerk reflex:
1. Sensory Receptor : The quadriceps tendon is stretched.
2. Afferent Neuron : Sends a signal to the spinal cord.
3. Integration Center : The spinal cord processes the signal.
4. Efferent Neuron : Sends a signal to the quadriceps muscle.
5. Effector Organ : The quadriceps muscle contracts, causing the knee to jerk upward
 POLYSYNAPTIC REFLEX
A polysynaptic reflex arc is a type of reflex arc that involves multiple synapses between the afferent
neuron and the efferent neuron.

Withdrawal Reflex (Flexor Reflex)

1. Sensory Receptor : Nociceptors detect painful stimulus.

2. Afferent Neuron : Sends signal to interneurons in the spinal cord.

3. Interneurons : Process and integrate the signal with other sensory information.

4. Efferent Neuron (Motor Neuron) : Stimulates the flexor muscles to contract.

5. Effector Organ : Flexor muscles contract to withdraw the affected limb from the painful stimulus.
 SPINAL NERVES
● 31 pairs of spinal nerves
● Organization of spinal nerve
1. 8 Cervical 1. Root- inside vertebral canal
2. 12 thoracic a. Dorsal sensory root with ganglion
3. 5 lumbar b. Ventral motor root
4. 5 sacral 2. Mixed spinal nerve
5. 1 coccygeal 3. Branches/ ramis
a. Ventral branch
b. Dorsal branch
c. White ramis communicate
d. Meaningful branch
● Ventral branch - supply skin and muscles of limbs Supply lateral and
anterior part of trunk.
● Dorsal branch - supply deep muscles of back , skin of back and neck.
● White ramus communicans - supply Smoot muscles, glands , visceral
organs.
● Meningeal branch - supply meninges of spinal cord.
Sensory Receptors
Functional Classification
Exteroceptors: respond to stimuli from external environment,i.e
pain,temperature,touch and pressure
Proprioceptors: respond to stimuli in deeper tissues,i.e contraction of
muscles,movements,position and pressure.
Interosceptors: located in thoracic and abdominal viscera and in blood vessels
Special sense receptors: concerned with vision,hearing,balance,smell and taste
SUMMARY OF CRANIAL NERVES
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Autonomic Nervous System

● Controls involuntary activities of the body

Like sweating, salivation , peristalsis etc

Fundamentally differs from somatic nervous system in having :

● Preganglionic fibres arising from the CNS.

● Ganglia for relay of the preganglionic fibres.
● Postganglionic fibres arising from the ganglia which supply the effector.

In contrast :

● Somatic nerves after arising from CNS reach their destination without any
interruption.
 Division of Autonomic nervous system
● Sympathetic nervous system.
● Parasympathetic nervous system.
● SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM -
1.Also known as ‘thoracolumbar’ outflow because it arises from T1 to L2 segments
of spinal cord.
2. Medullated preganglionic fibres [white rami communicantes] arise from the
lateral column of the spinal cord, emerge through the ventral rami,where the
white rami are connected to the ganglia of the sympathetic chain.

Sympathetic fibres hitch hike along the spinal nerve

3. Preganglionic fibres relay either in the lateral ganglia (sympathetic chain) or in the collateral
ganglia , eg. Coeliac ganglia.

The non medullated postganglionic fibres [grey rami communicantes] runs for some distance
before reaching the organ of supply.

Unique exception : Adrenal medulla (supplied by preganglionic fibres)

4. Sympathetic nerve endings are adrenergic in nature.

Meaning - noradrenaline is produced for neurotransmission.

Only exception- sympathetic nerves supplying sweat glands and skeletal muscle vessels for
Vasodilation.
Functionally Sympathetic nerves are :

1. Vasomotor - vasoconstrictor
2. Sudomotor - secrets motor to sweat glands
3. Pilomotor - contract the arrector pili and causes election of hair.

In addition, Sympathetic activity causes

● Dilation of pupil. • Tachycardia

● Pale face. • Rise in blood pressure
● Dry mouth. • Inhibition of hollow viscera
Sympathetic reactions are :

● Mass reactions.
● Widely diffused in their effect.
● Mobilize resources of the body for expenditure of energy in dealing
with the emergencies or emotional crises.
 Parasympathetic Nervous System
1. Also known as ‘craniosacral ‘ outflow because it arises from from the brain
(mixed with III,VII,IX,and X cranial nerves ) and sacral 2-4 segments of the spinal
cord.
2. Preganglionic fibres very long,reaching to the viscera of supply.
● Ganglia, called terminal ganglia ,are situated mostly on the viscera.
● Postganglionic fibres are very short.
3. Parasympathetic nerve endings are cholinergic in nature ,similar to somatic
nerves .
Functionally,parasympathetic activity is seen when the subject is fully
relaxed.
● Pupil constricted
● Lenses accommodated
● Face flushed
● Bladder and gut contacting
● Mouth moist
● Pulse low
In general, effects of parasympathetic activity are usually,
● Discrete & isolated
● Directed towards conservation and restoration of the resources of the
energy in the body.
 Neurotransmitters
● Preganglionic parasympathetic : Acetylcholine
● Preganglionic sympathetic : Acetylcholine
● Postganglionic parasympathetic : Acetylcholine
● Postganglionic sympathetic : Norepinephrine (except : those supplying arrector
pili muscles and sweat glands) [Acetylcholine]
Clinical Anatomy
1) Regeneration- depends on the degree of injury, particularly on the continuity of
the nerve.

Different degrees of nerve injury :-

a) Neuropraxia
● minimal lesion causing transient functional block without any degeneration.
● Recovery is spontaneous and complete. eg: sleeping toot.
b) Axonotmesis
● A Lesion where true wallerian degeneration occur
● Continuity is preserved.
● Regeneration takes place in due course.
c) Neurotmesis
● the complete division of a nerve.
● cut ends must be sutured for regeneration.

2) Neuropathies:-
● group of diseases of peripheral nerves.

It is of two types:
a) Polyneuropathy
● Several neurons are affected
● Those supplying the feet and legs are affected first.
● Occurs mostly due to nutritional deficiencies , metabolic disorders, chronic
diseases, infections and toxic reactions
b) Mononeuropathy

● Usually one neuron is affected.

● Common cause is ischaemia due to pressure.
● Resultant dysfunction depends on site and degree of injury.

3) Bell's palsy:

● Compression of a facial nerve in or just outside stylomastoid foramen.

● Due to inflammation and oedema of the nerve.
● This causes paralysis of facial muscles and loss of facial expression on the
affected side.
4) Acute idiopathic inflammatory polyneuropathy

(Guillain-Barré syndrome)→

● sudden, acute and progressive bilateral ascending paralysis.

● Starts at the lower limb and spreads to arms, trunks and cranial nerves.
● Characterised by: widespread inflammation with some demyelination of
spinal and cranial nerves and the spinal ganglia.

5) Ageing:

● Usually after 60-70 years or so there are Changes in the brain.

these are:

a. Prominence of sulci due to cortical shrinkage..

b. The gyri get narrow and sulci get broad.
c. The subarachnoid space becomes wider.
d. There is enlargement of the ventricles.

6) Dementia:

● Slow and progressive loss of memory, intellect and personality.

● Consciousness of the subject is normal.
● Usually occurs due to Alzheimer's disease.
Alzheimer's disease:

● changes of normal ageing are pronounced in the parietal lobe, temporal lobe
and in the hippocampus.

7) Infections of brain:-

a) Bacterial

● Meningitis or brain abscess

b) viral:

● Viruses may cause, meningitis or encephalitis.

Poliomyelitis:
● virus has attraction for anterior (motor) horn cells, especially of the spinal
cord which get damaged.
● nerves arising from these neurons get affected resulting in paralysis or paresis.
● there may be partial or complete recovery.
● Under Polio Eradication Programme, India has been declared ‘polio free’ in
March 2014
c) Miscellaneous types
Parkinson's disease:-
● Extrapyramidal system which connects the higher centres and the anterior
horn cells get affected in this disease.
 ● Affected nuclei of the extrapyramidal system is deficit in neurotransmitter
dopamine.
● Depigmentation of substantia nigra is also observed.

Characteristics :

● Face is mask like and expressionless

● Posture is bent forwards with stiff pill-rolling movements with tremors of the
hands.
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