MAHATMA GANDHI UNIVERSITY OF

MEDICAL SCIENCES AND

TECHNOLOGY

Department of Clinical Psychology

TOPIC: Nervous System, Divisions, CNS, PNS, ANS, Spinal

and Cranial Nerves, Sympathetic and Parasympathetic NS

Supervisor: Submitted by:

Sheeba shamsudeen Rivisha Singh
Assistant Professor MSc Freshers Clinical Psychology
(2023-24)
 CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
3. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
4. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
5. SPINAL AND CRANIAL NERVOUS
6. REFERENCES
 INTRODUCTION

Neurons, or nerve cell, are the main structural and functional units of the nervous
system. Every neuron consists of a body (soma) and a number of processes
(neurites). The nerve cell body contains the cellular organelles and is where neural
impulses (action potentials) are generated. The processes stem from the body, they
connect neurons with each other and with other body cells, enabling the flow of
neural impulses. There are two types of neural processes that differ in structure and
function;

 Axons are long and conduct impulses away from the neuronal body.
 Dendrites are short and act to receive impulses from other neurons,
conducting the electrical signal towards the nerve cell body.
Every neuron has a single axon, while the number of dendrites varies. Based on that
number, there are four structural types of neurons; multipolar, bipolar, pseudo
unipolar and unipolar.

Two basic types of cells are present in the nervous system;

Neurons- There are two types of neurons, named according to whether they send an
electrical signal towards or away from the CNS;
  Efferent neurons (motor or descending) send neural impulses from the CNS to
the peripheral tissues, instructing them how to function.

 Afferent neurons (sensory or ascending) conduct impulses from the peripheral

tissues to the CNS. These impulses contain sensory information, describing
the tissue's environment.

 Glial cells - Glial cells, also called neuroglia or simply glia, are smaller non-
excitatory cells that act to support neurons. They do not propagate action
potentials. Instead, they myelinate neurons, maintain homeostatic balance,
provide structural support, protection and nutrition for neurons throughout the
nervous system.
 Most axons are wrapped by a white insulating substance known as a myelin
sheath, which is produced by oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. Myelin
encloses an axon segmentally, leaving interruptions between the segments
known as myelin sheath gaps (a.ka. nodes of Ranvier). The neural impulses
propagate through the myelin sheath gaps only, skipping the myelin sheath.
This significantly increases the speed of neural impulse propagation:
 White matter comprises the outermost layer of the spinal cord and the inner
part of the brain.
 Gray matter is located in the central part of the spinal cord, outermost layer of
the brain (cerebral cortex), and in several subcortical nuclei of the brain deep
to the cerebral cortex.
Nervous system is the major controlling, regulatory and communicating system in
the body. Nervous system controls all the activities of the body. Primarily, nervous
system is divided into two parts. The divisions of the nervous system are:
1. Central nervous system - Central nervous system (CNS) includes the Brain and
the Spinal cord. It is the site of information processing and control. CNS is the
supreme command centre of the body. It is formed by the neurons and the
supporting cells called the neuroglia. The Brain is situated in the skull. It is
continued as spinal cord in the vertebral canal through the foramen magnum of the
skull bone. Brain and spinal cord are enveloped and protected by three layers of
covering called meninges and a fluid inside which is called the Cerebrospinal fluid.

2. Peripheral nervous system – PNS represents the conduit between the CNS and
the body. It is further subdivided into the somatic nervous system (SNS) and
the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The PNS consists of 12 pairs of cranial
nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nerves and a number of small neuronal clusters throughout
the body called ganglia.
Peripheral nerves can be sensory (afferent), motor (efferent) or mixed (both).
Depending on what structures they innervate, peripheral nerves can have the
following modalities;

 Special - innervating special senses (e.g. eye) and is found only in afferent
fibers
 General - supplying everything except special senses
 Somatic - innervates the skin and skeletal muscles (e.g. biceps brachii)
 Visceral - supplies internal organs.
 Cranial nerves
 Cranial nerves are peripheral nerves that emerge from the cranial nerve nuclei
of the brainstem and spinal cord. They innervate the head and neck. Cranial
nerves are numbered one to twelve according to their order of exit through
the skull fissures. Namely, they are: olfactory nerve (CN I), optic nerve (CN
II), oculomotor nerve (CN III), trochlear nerve (CN IV), trigeminal
nerve (CN V), abducens nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII), vestibulocochlear
nerve (VIII), glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), vagus nerve (X), accessory
nerve (XI), and hypoglossal nerve (XII). These nerves are motor (III, IV, VI,
XI, and XII), sensory (I, II and VIII) or mixed (V, VII, IX, and X).

Spinal nerves

Spinal nerves emerge from the segments of the spinal cord. They are numbered
according to their specific segment of origin. Hence, the 31 pairs of spinal nerves are
divided into 8 cervical pairs, 12 thoracic pairs, 5 lumbar pairs, 5 sacral pairs, and 1
coccygeal spinal nerve. All spinal nerves are mixed, containing both sensory and
motor fibers.

Spinal nerves innervate the entire body, with the exception of the head. They do so
by either directly synapsing with their target organs or by interlacing with each other
and forming plexuses. There are four major plexuses that supply the body regions;

 Cervical plexus (C1-C4) - innervates the neck

  Brachial plexus (C5-T1) - innervates the upper limb
 Lumbar plexus (L1-L4) - innervates the lower abdominal wall, anterior hip
and thigh
 Sacral plexus (L4-S4) - innervates the pelvis and the lower limb

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM IS FURTHER DIVIDED INTO:

Somatic nervous system

The somatic nervous system is the voluntary component of the peripheral nervous
system. It consists of all the fibers within cranial and spinal nerves that enable us to
perform voluntary body movements (efferent nerves) and feel sensation from the
skin, muscles and joints (afferent nerves). Somatic sensation relates to touch,
pressure, vibration, pain, temperature, stretch and position sense from these three
types of structures.

Sensation from the glands, smooth and cardiac muscles is conveyed by the
autonomic nerves.

Autonomic nervous system- The autonomic nervous system is the involuntary part
of the peripheral nervous system. Further divided into
the sympathetic (SANS), parasympathetic (PANS) systems, it is comprised
exclusively of visceral motor fibers. Nerves from both these divisions innervate all
involuntary structures of the body;

 Cardiac muscle
 Glandular cells
 Smooth muscles present in the walls of the blood vessels and hollow organs.
Balanced functioning of these two systems plays a crucial role in maintaining
homeostasis, meaning that the SANS and PANS do not oppose each other but rather,
they complement each other. They do so by potentiating the activity of different
organs under various circumstances; for example, the PSNS will stimulate
higher intestine activity after food intake, while SANS will stimulate the heart to
increase the output during exercise.

Autonomic nerves synapse within autonomic ganglia before reaching their target
organ, thus all of them have presynaptic and postsynaptic parts. Presynaptic
fibers originate from CNS and end by synapsing with neurons of the peripheral
autonomic ganglia. Postsynaptic fibers are the axons of ganglion neurons, extending
from the ganglion to peripheral tissues. In sympathetic nerves, the presynaptic fiber
is short as the ganglia are located very close to the spinal cord, while the
postsynaptic fiber is much longer in order to reach the target organ. In
parasympathetic nerves it’s the opposite; the presynaptic fiber is longer than the
postsynaptic.

Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic system (SANS) adjusts our bodies for situations of increased
physical activity. Its actions are commonly described as the “fight-or-flight”
response as it stimulates responses such as faster breathing, increased heart rate,
elevated blood pressure, dilated pupils and redirection of blood flow from the
skin, kidneys, stomach and intestines to the heart and muscles, where it’s needed.

Sympathetic nerve fibers have a thoracolumbar origin, meaning that they stem
from the T1-L2/L3 spinal cord segments. They synapse with prevertebral and
paravertebral ganglia, from which the postsynaptic fibers travel to supply the target
viscera.
Parasympathetic nervous system- The parasympathetic nervous
system (PSNS) adjusts our bodies for energy conservation, activating “rest and
digest” or “feed and breed” activities. The nerves of the PSNS slow down the
actions of cardiovascular system, divert blood away from muscles and increase
peristalsis and gland secretion. Parasympathetic fibers have craniosacral outflow,
meaning that they originate from the brainstem (cranio-) and S2-S4 spinal cord
segments (-sacral). These fibers travel to thoracic and abdominal organs, where
they synapse in ganglia located close to or within the target organ.
 The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system (CNS) is the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral
nervous system (PNS) consists of the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. Part
of the PNS is the somatic nervous system, which consists of the axons conveying
messages from the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles. The
axons to the muscles are an extension from cell bodies in the spinal cord, so part of
each cell is in the CNS and part in the PNS. That is a reason the CNS-PNS dis
tinction is artificial. Another part of the PNS, the autonomic nervous system,
controls the heart, the intestines, and other organs. The autonomic nervous system
has some of its cell bodies within the brain or spinal cord and some in clusters
along the sides of the spinal cord. To follow a map, you must understand north,
south, east, and west. Because the nervous system is three-dimensional, we need
more terms to describe it. Dorsal means toward the back and ventral means toward
the stomach. (One way to remember these terms is that a ventriloquist is literally a
“stomach talker.”) In a four legged animal, the top of the brain is dorsal (on the
same side as the animal’s back), and the bottom of the brain is ventral (on the
stomach side). When humans evolved upright posture, the position of our head
changed relative to the spinal cord. For convenience, we still apply the terms dorsal
and ventral to the same parts of the human brain as other vertebrate brains.
Consequently, the dorsal–ventral axis of the human brain is at a right angle to the
dorsal–ventral axis of the spinal cord. If you picture a person in a crawling position
with all four limbs on the ground but nose pointing forward, the dorsal and ventral
positions of the brain become parallel to those of the spinal cord. Figure also
illustrates the three ways of taking a plane through the brain, known as horizontal,
sagittal, and coronal (or frontal).
 The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is the part of the CNS within the spinal column. The spinal cord
communicates with all the sense or gans and muscles except those of the head. It is
a segmented structure, and each segment has on each side a sensory nerve and a
motor nerve, as Figure shows. According to the Bell-Magendie law, which was one
of the first discoveries about the functions of the nervous system, the entering
dorsal roots (axon bundles) carry sensory information, and the exiting ventral roots
carry motor information. The axons to and from the skin and muscles are the
peripheral nervous system. The cell bodies of the sensory neurons are in clusters of
neurons outside the spinal cord, called the dorsal root ganglia. (Ganglia is the
plural of ganglion, a cluster of neurons. In most cases, a neuron cluster outside the
CNS is called a ganglion, and a cluster inside the CNS is called a nucleus.) Cell
bodies of the motor neurons are inside the spinal cord. In the cross-section through
the spinal cord shown in Figures, the H-shaped gray matter in the center of the
cord is densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites. Many neurons of the spinal
cord send axons from the gray matter to the brain or other parts of the spinal cord
through the white matter, which consists mostly of myelinated axons. Each
segment of the spinal cord sends sensory information to the brain and receives
motor commands from the brain. All that information passes through tracts of
axons in the spinal cord. If the spinal cord is cut at a given segment, the brain loses
sensation from that segment and below. The brain also loses motor control over all
parts of the body served by that segment and the lower ones.
 Anatomy

The spinal cord is part of the central nervous system (CNS). It is situated inside the
vertebral canal of the vertebral column. During development, there’s a disproportion
between spinal cord growth and vertebral column growth. The spinal cord finishes
growing at the age of 4, while the vertebral column finishes growing at age 14-18.
This is the reason why, in adults, the spinal cord occupies only the upper two thirds
of the vertebral canal. The spinal cord is a continuation of the brainstem. It extends
from the foramen magnum at the base of the skull to the L1/L2 vertebra where it
terminates as the conus medullaris (medullary cone). A thin thread called filum
terminale extends from the tip of the conus medullaris all the way to the 1st
coccygeal vertebra (Co1) and anchors the spinal cord in place.

Mnemonic 'SCULL', which stands for ' Spinal Cord Until L2 (LL)

Throughout its length, the spinal cord shows two well defined enlargements to
accommodate for innervation of the upper and lower limbs: one at the cervical level
(upper limbs), and one at the lumbosacral level (lower limbs). Like the vertebral
column, the spinal cord is divided into segments: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral,
and coccygeal. Each segment of the spinal cord provides several pairs of spinal
nerves, which exit from vertebral canal through the intervertebral foramina. There
are 8 pairs of cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal pair of spinal
nerves (a total of 31 pairs).

Meninges- The spinal cord and spinal nerve roots are wrapped within three layers
called meninges. The outermost is the dura mater, underneath it is the arachnoid
mater, and the deepest is the pia mater. Dura mater has two layers (periosteal and
meningeal), between which is the epidural space. Between the arachnoid and pia
mater is the subarachnoid space, it is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
 THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is a nervous system component that connects
the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. It consists of nerves and
ganglia that transmit signals between the CNS and organs, limbs, and skin.

The PNS is divided into sensory and motor divisions, which carry information to
and from the CNS. It is critical in bodily functions like movement, sensation, and
autonomic processes.

The PNS is all the nerves that branch out from the CNS components and extend to
other body parts – the sense organs, muscles, and glands. The PNS connects the
CNS to the rest of the body.

The primary function of the peripheral nervous system is to connect the brain and
spinal cord to the rest of the body and the external environment. The peripheral
nervous system transmits information to and from the CNS.

This is accomplished through nerves that carry information from sensory receptors
in the eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue, as well as stretch receptors and
nociceptors in muscles, glands, and other internal organs.

The sense organs can detect changes in the environment and relay information
through the sensory nerves to the CNS. The brain can then send signals through the
nerves to the muscles, resulting in the muscles moving in response.

Therefore, there is always a stream of incoming and outgoing information between

the PNS, CNS, and the body through the form of nerve impulses.

The main functions of the PNS are voluntary movements such as chewing food,
walking, and facial expressions. The PNS also regulates autonomic functions such
as breathing, heart rate, and digesting – the unconscious bodily behaviors.

The PNS is thus especially important for humans to survive. Unlike the CNS,
protected by the skull and the spine vertebrae, the nerves and cells of the PNS are
not enclosed by bones. This makes the PNS more susceptible to damage by trauma.
 SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The somatic nervous system is associated with activities traditionally thought of as
conscious or voluntary. The somatic nervous system is key for carrying messages
throughout the body to initiate and control movement. This system processes
sensory information from external stimuli (e.g., through hearing, sight, and touch)
and motor information, which then carries signals to and from the CNS.

Functions of the Somatic Nervous System:-

The SoNS contains both afferent nerves traveling towards the CNS and efferent
nerves responsible for sending signals from the CNS towards the rest of the body.
The brain and spinal cord process the input from a variety of sources and integrate
them before devising a response. This response determines the location and
strength of muscle contraction across different parts of the body. Therefore, the
primary function of the somatic nervous system is to connect the CNS with organs
and striated muscles in order to enable complex movements and behavior.

Additionally, the SoNS also mediates a subset of involuntary muscle responses

called reflex arcs. A reflex arc results in an extremely quick muscle contraction in
response to a stimulus, with minimal intervention from the brain. While the
impulse for most voluntary muscle contraction originates in the brain or brainstem,
a reflex action can be brought about with just a single sensory and motor neuron
that synapse in the spinal cord. The motor response is practically ‘hard-wired’ for a
particular stimulus. The knee-jerk response to the stimulation of the patellar
ligament in the knee is an example of a reflex response. Other examples include
the immediate withdrawal of a hand on touching a hot stove or a quick change in
posture when the foot is placed on a sharp stone.
  Sensory neurons – also known as afferent neurons, send information to the
CNS from the internal organs (glands, muscle, and skin) or external stimuli
(e.g., through sound, heat, touch, and light). For instance, when touching a
rough surface, this information will be transmitted through the sensory
neurons to the brain. Afferent sensory neurons of the somatic nervous
system provide information to the CNS about joint angle, muscle length,
muscle tension, and the presence of noxious stimuli.

Proprioceptors: In addition to the typical extrafusal muscle fibers, the body of a

muscle also contains muscle spindles. These small sensory organs contain
specialized muscle fibers that have a central non-contractile segment. Afferent
neurons of the somatic nervous system have their sensory dendrites in this area.
These dendrites contain ion channels that open in response to mechanical forces on
the cell. When the muscle spindle is stretched, the opening of ion channels
generates an action potential in these sensory neurons. The presence of
mechanically gated ion channels allows these neurons to carry detailed information
about the condition of the muscle, and its contractile activity.

Nociceptors: Nociceptors are pain receptors found across the body, and are an
essential part of injury prevention, especially in muscle fibers. These neurons are
activated in response to potentially damaging stimuli, such as heat, cold, or
extreme forces. The presence of nociceptors prevents us from hyperextending
joints, overstretching muscles and protects us from a wide range of injuries.

 Motor neurons – also known as efferent neurons, transmit signals from the
CNS to skeletal and muscle to either directly or indirectly control muscle
movements. Motor neurons allow us to act in response to external stimuli.
For instance, sensory neurons send this information to the brain while tasting
food. The brain will then transmit signals through the motor neurons to
 encourage the mouth, jaw, and teeth to continue eating the food. The neural
pathway that results in skeletal muscle contraction can be functionally
divided into two main types of neurons – the upper motor neurons in the
central nervous system and the lower motor neurons of the somatic nervous
system. Lower motor neurons can be a part of cranial or spinal nerves. They
innervate muscle fibers and directly cause their contraction.

Upper motor neurons have their cell bodies in the precentral gyrus of the brain.
This region is located towards the posterior end of the frontal lobe in the cerebral
cortex and is associated with the primary motor cortex. The axons of upper motor
neurons related to voluntary muscle movement travel along the CNS in two
pathways – the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts. Neurons whose axons travel
along the corticobulbar tract synapse with lower motor neurons in the brain stem.
The axons of these lower motor neurons form cranial nerves such as the
oculomotor, trochlear or trigeminal nerves that are involved with the contraction of
skeletal muscles in the face, neck, jaw and tongue.

As well as regulating voluntary movements, the somatic nervous system is also

responsible for reflexes. This is an involuntary muscle response being controlled
by a reflex arc, which is a neural pathway.

The image shows upper motor neurons emerging from the precentral gyrus and
traveling along the corticobulbar tract towards the brainstem. The axons of other
upper motor neurons travel along the corticospinal tract, passing the medulla
oblongata and reaching the ventral horns of the spinal cord.

The image shows the origin of upper motor

neurons from the precentral gyrus, moving through the midbrain and medulla to
form the lateral and anterior corticospinal tracts. The primary function of these
neurons is to connect the brain with the spinal cord. At the spinal cord, upper motor
neurons form synapses with lower motor neurons, and release glutamate into the
synaptic cleft. The depolymerization of the lower motor neuron results in the
transmission of the action potential towards skeletal muscles. There are three types
of lower motor neurons – alpha, beta, and gamma. Alpha motor neurons are thick,
myelinated, multipolar nerve fibers that are involved in innervating most skeletal
muscle fibers and causing their contraction. Gamma motor neurons support the
activity of alpha motor neurons by keeping muscle spindles taut. Alpha motor
neurons can receive signals from upper motor neurons for voluntary muscle
movement. At the same time, they can receive input from sensory and inter
neurons as well, in order to initiate reflex actions. The number of alpha motor
neurons innervating a single muscle depends on the extent of fine motor control
required at the site. Therefore, the muscles of a finger will have substantially more
alpha motor neurons associated with them than the muscles of the thigh or upper
arm.
 THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The autonomic nervous system consists of neurons that receive information from
and send commands to the heart, intestines, and other organs. It has two parts: the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
The sympathetic nervous system, a network of nerves that prepare the organs for
vigorous activity, consists of chains of ganglia just to the left and right of the spinal
cord’s central regions (the thoracic and lumbar areas). These ganglia are connected
by axons to the spinal cord. Sympathetic axons prepare the organs for “fight or
flight”—increasing breathing and heart rate and decreasing digestive activity.
Because the sympathetic ganglia are closely linked, they of ten act as a single
system “in sympathy” with one another, although various situations activate some
parts more than others. The sweat glands, the adrenal glands, the muscles that
constrict blood vessels, and the muscles that erect the hairs of the skin have only
sympathetic, not parasympathetic, input.
The parasympathetic nervous system facilitates vegetative, nonemergency
responses. The term para means “beside” or “related to,” and parasympathetic
activities are related to, and generally the opposite of, sympathetic activities. For
example, the sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate, but the
parasympathetic nervous system decreases it. The parasympathetic nervous system
increases digestive activity, whereas the sympathetic nervous system decreases it.
Al though the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems act in opposition, both are
constantly active to varying degrees, and many stimuli arouse parts of both
systems. Th e parasympathetic nervous system is also known as the craniosacral
system because it consists of the cranial nerves and nerves from the sacral spinal
cord. Un like the ganglia in the sympathetic system, the parasympathetic ganglia
are not arranged in a chain near the spinal cord. Rather, long preganglionic axons
extend from the spinal cord to parasympathetic ganglia close to each internal
organ; shorter postganglionic fibers then extend from the parasympathetic ganglia
into the organs themselves. Because the parasympathetic ganglia are not linked to
one another, they act more independently than the sympathetic ganglia do.
Parasympathetic activity decreases heart rate, increases digestive rate, and in
general, conserves energy. The parasympathetic nervous system’s postganglionic
axons release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Most of the postganglionic
synapses of the sympathetic nervous system use norepinephrine, although a few,
including those that control the sweat glands, use acetylcholine. Because the two
systems use different transmitters, certain drugs excite or inhibit one system or the
other. For example, over-the-counter cold remedies exert most of their effects by
blocking parasympathetic activity or increasing sympathetic activity. Because the
flow of sinus fluids is a parasympathetic response, drugs that block the
parasympathetic system inhibit sinus flow. Th e side effects of cold remedies stem
from their sympathetic, anti parasympathetic activities: They inhibit salivation and
digestion and increase heart rate.
 SPINAL AND CRANIAL NERVES
Spinal Nerves

The nerves connected to the spinal cord are the spinal nerves. The arrangement of
these nerves is much more regular than that of the cranial nerves. All of the spinal
nerves are combined sensory and motor axons that separate into two nerve roots.
The sensory axons enter the spinal cord as the dorsal nerve root. The motor fibers,
both somatic and autonomic, emerge as the ventral nerve root. The dorsal root
ganglion for each nerve is an enlargement of the spinal nerve.

There are 31 spinal nerves, named for the level of the spinal cord at which each
one emerges. There are eight pairs of cervical nerves designated C1 to C8, twelve
thoracic nerves designated T1 to T12, five pairs of lumbar nerves designated L1 to
L5, five pairs of sacral nerves designated S1 to S5, and one pair of coccygeal
nerves. The nerves are numbered from the superior to inferior positions, and each
emerges from the vertebral column through the intervertebral foramen at its level.
The first nerve, C1, emerges between the first cervical vertebra and the occipital
bone. The second nerve, C2, emerges between the first and second cervical
vertebrae. The same occurs for C3 to C7, but C8 emerges between the seventh
cervical vertebra and the first thoracic vertebra. For the thoracic and lumbar
nerves, each one emerges between the vertebra that has the same designation and
the next vertebra in the column. The sacral nerves emerge from the sacral foramina
along the length of that unique vertebra.

Spinal nerves extend outward from the vertebral column to enervate the periphery.
The nerves in the periphery are not straight continuations of the spinal nerves, but
rather the reorganization of the axons in those nerves to follow different courses.
Axons from different spinal nerves will come together into a systemic nerve. This
occurs at four places along the length of the vertebral column, each identified as
a nerve plexus, whereas the other spinal nerves directly correspond to nerves at
their respective levels. In this instance, the word plexus is used to describe
networks of nerve fibres with no associated cell bodies.

Of the four nerve plexuses, two are found at the cervical level, one at the lumbar
level, and one at the sacral level. The cervical plexus is composed of axons from
spinal nerves C1 through C5 and branches into nerves in the posterior neck and
head, as well as the phrenic nerve, which connects to the diaphragm at the base of
the thoracic cavity. The other plexus from the cervical level is the brachial plexus.
Spinal nerves C4 through T1 reorganize through this plexus to give rise to the
nerves of the arms, as the name brachial suggests. A large nerve from this plexus is
the radial nerve from which the axillary nerve branches to go to the armpit
region. The radial nerve continues through the arm and is paralleled by the ulnar
nerve and the median nerve. The lumbar plexus arises from axons of the ventral
rami of spinal nerves T12 through L4 and gives rise to nerves enervating the pelvic
region and the anterior leg. The femoral nerve is one of the major nerves from this
plexus, which gives rise to the saphenous nerve as a branch that extends through
the anterior lower leg. The sacral plexus comes from the lower lumbar nerves L4
and L5 and the sacral nerves S1 to S4. The most significant systemic nerve to
come from this plexus is the sciatic nerve, which is a combination of the tibial
nerve and the fibular nerve. The sciatic nerve extends across the hip joint and is
most commonly associated with the condition sciatica, which is the result of
compression or irritation of the nerve or any of the spinal nerves giving rise to it.

These plexuses are described as arising from spinal nerves and giving rise to
certain systemic nerves, but they contain fibers that serve sensory functions or
fibers that serve motor functions. This means that some fibers extend from
cutaneous or other peripheral sensory surfaces and send action potentials into the
CNS. Those are axons of sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglia that enter the
spinal cord through the dorsal nerve root. Other fibers are the axons of motor
neurons of the anterior horn of the spinal cord, which emerge in the ventral nerve
root and send action potentials to cause skeletal muscles to contract in their target
regions. For example, the radial nerve contains fibers of cutaneous sensation in the
arm, as well as motor fibers that move muscles in the arm.

Spinal nerves of the thoracic region, T2 through T11, are not part of the plexuses
but rather emerge and give rise to the intercostal nerves found between the ribs,
which articulate with the vertebrae surrounding the spinal nerve.

Cranial Nerves

The nerves attached to the brain are the cranial nerves, which are primarily
responsible for the sensory and motor functions of the head and neck (one of these
nerves targets organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities as part of the
parasympathetic nervous system). There are twelve cranial nerves, which are
designated CNI through CNXII for “Cranial Nerve,” using Roman numerals for 1
through 12. They can be classified as sensory nerves, motor nerves, or a
combination of both, meaning that the axons in these nerves originate out of
sensory ganglia external to the cranium or motor nuclei within the brain stem.
Sensory axons enter the brain to synapse in a nucleus. Motor axons connect to
skeletal muscles of the head or neck. Three of the nerves are solely composed of
sensory fibres; five are strictly motor; and the remaining four are mixed nerves.

Learning the cranial nerves is a tradition in anatomy courses, and students have
always used mnemonic devices to remember the nerve names. A traditional
mnemonic is the rhyming couplet, “On Old Olympus’ Towering Tops/A Finn and
German Viewed Some Hops,” in which the initial letter of each word corresponds
to the initial letter in the name of each nerve. The names of the nerves have
changed over the years to reflect current usage and more accurate naming. An
exercise to help learn this sort of information is to generate a mnemonic using
words that have personal significance. The names of the cranial nerves are listed
in Table along with a brief description of their function, their source (sensory
ganglion or motor nucleus), and their target (sensory nucleus or skeletal muscle).
They are listed here with a brief explanation of each nerve.

The olfactory nerve and optic nerve are responsible for the sense of smell and
vision, respectively. The oculomotor nerve is responsible for eye movements by
controlling four of the extraocular muscles. It is also responsible for lifting the
upper eyelid when the eyes point up, and for pupillary constriction. The trochlear
nerve and the abducens nerve are both responsible for eye movement, but do so
by controlling different extraocular muscles. The trigeminal nerve is responsible
for cutaneous sensations of the face and controlling the muscles of mastication.
The facial nerve is responsible for the muscles involved in facial expressions, as
well as part of the sense of taste and the production of saliva.
The vestibulocochlear nerve is responsible for the senses of hearing and balance.
The glossopharyngeal nerve is responsible for controlling muscles in the oral
cavity and upper throat, as well as part of the sense of taste and the production of
saliva. The vagus nerve is responsible for contributing to homeostatic control of
the organs of the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities. The spinal accessory
nerve is responsible for controlling the muscles of the neck, along with cervical
spinal nerves. The hypoglossal nerve is responsible for controlling the muscles of
the lower throat and tongue.

Three of the cranial nerves also contain autonomic fibers, and a fourth is almost
purely a component of the autonomic system. The oculomotor, facial, and
glossopharyngeal nerves contain fibers that contact autonomic ganglia. The
oculomotor fibers initiate pupillary constriction, whereas the facial and
glossopharyngeal fibers both initiate salivation. The vagus nerve primarily targets
autonomic ganglia in the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities.

Another important aspect of the cranial nerves that lends itself to a mnemonic is
the functional role each nerve plays. The nerves fall into one of three basic groups.
They are sensory, motor, or both. The sentence, “Some Say Marry Money But My
Brother Says Brains Beauty Matter More,” corresponds to the basic function of
each nerve. The first, second, and eighth nerves are purely sensory: the olfactory
(CNI), optic (CNII), and vestibulocochlear (CNVIII) nerves. The three eye-
movement nerves are all motor: the oculomotor (CNIII), trochlear (CNIV), and
abducens (CNVI). The spinal accessory (CNXI) and hypoglossal (CNXII) nerves
are also strictly motor. The remainder of the nerves contain both sensory and motor
fibers. They are the trigeminal (CNV), facial (CNVII), glossopharyngeal (CNIX),
and vagus (CNX) nerves. The nerves that convey both are often related to each
other. The trigeminal and facial nerves both concern the face; one concerns the
sensations and the other concerns the muscle movements. The facial and
glossopharyngeal nerves are both responsible for conveying gustatory, or taste,
sensations as well as controlling salivary glands. The vagus nerve is involved in
visceral responses to taste, namely the gag reflex. This is not an exhaustive list
what these combination nerves do, but there is a thread of relation between them.
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 (kalat, 2009)Biological psychology

 (Lindsay M. Biga, 2019)Anatomy and physiology of spinal and cranial nerves

https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/13-3-spinal-and-cranial-nerves/
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