PE/MR/GL/ PG/NG/RP 264

(Fluid Mechanics )
Chapter 3
Fluid Dynamics
(Flowing Fluids and Pressure Variation)

By:
Augustine A. Kwarteng (PhD)
Ernest Adaze (MS, BSc, MASME, MSPE)
 Objectives for the day…

➢Develop a good understanding of velocity, acceleration and

flow visualization
➢Introduce you to new flow terminologies such as streamlines,
steady and uniform flow
➢Distinguish between Laminar and Turbulent flows
➢Describe the difference between convective and local
acceleration

2
Lagrangian and Eulerian Viewpoints
There are two ways to express the equations for fluids in motion:
Lagrangian and Eulerian.

Lagrangian Viewpoint
Under this viewpoint, the motion of a specific fluid particle is recorded for
all time (watch individual, single particle all the time, at all locations x, y,
and z).
This is the familiar approach in dynamics.

Using the Cartesian coordinate system, the

position vector (R) is expressed as:

R(t ) = xi + yj + zk
where i, j, and k are the unit vectors in the x, y and z directions respectively
3
Lagrangian and Eulerian Viewpoints
The velocity of the particle is obtained by differentiating the position
vector of the particle with respect to time.

dR(t ) dx dy
V (t ) =
dz
= i+ j+ k
dt dt dt dt

V (t ) = ui + vj + wk
where u, v, and w are the component velocities in the x, y and z
directions respectively.

4
Lagrangian and Eulerian Viewpoints
Eulerian Viewpoint
Under this viewpoint, the idea is to focus on a certain point in space and
describe the motion of fluid particles that pass through this point as time
goes on.
In this case, the fluid particle velocity depends on the point in space and
time. Thus,

u = f1 ( x , y , z , t ) where S is the position vector of

v = f 2 ( x, y , z , t ) the particle along the streamline.
In order to describe the entire
w = f 3 ( x, y , z , t ) flow field, we must know the fluid
V = V (S , t ) motion at all points in the field

5
 Streamlines and Flow Patterns
Flow Pattern:
It refers to the construction of lines in the flow field to show the direction of
flow. These lines are known as streamlines.

Streamlines:
These are lines drawn through the flow field in such a manner that the
velocity vector of the fluid at each and every point on the line is tangent to
the line at that instant.

In other words, a streamline is a line that is tangent everywhere to the local

velocity vector.

6
 Streamlines and Flow Patterns
Consider a flow of water from a slot in the side of a tank, as shown in
Figure 1.

The velocity vectors have been sketched at three different locations.

➢ So the streamlines are describing the direction of
the flow.
➢ Streamlines form the flow pattern.
➢ Since the velocity is tangent to streamlines, it
implies:
 
V  dS = 0
Figure 1
7
 Streamlines and Flow Patterns
Dividing Streamline
➢ Whenever flow occurs around a body, streamline follows the flow
division.
➢ At the point of division, the velocity = 0 and the point of division is
called stagnation point.

8
Figure 2
 Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
Uniform Flow
➢ For a uniform flow, the velocity is constant in magnitude and direction
along a streamline at each instant in time. Thus,
V
=0 (Uniform flow)
S
➢ Here, streamlines are rectilinear (straight and parallel) as shown in
Figure 3.

9
Figure 3
 Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
Non-uniform Flow
➢ For a non-uniform flow, the velocity is not constant (changes along the
streamline) in magnitude, direction or both. Thus,
V
0 (Non-uniform flow)
S
➢ Here, the flow has streamline curvature and as such tends to be non-uniform
shown in Figure 4.

10
Figure 4
 Steady and Unsteady Flow
Steady Flow
➢ For a steady flow, the velocity remains constant with time at every location in
space. Thus,

V
=0 (Steady flow)
t
Unsteady Flow
➢ For an unsteady flow, the velocity keeps changing with time (at least at some
points). Thus,

V
0 (Unsteady flow)
t
11
Methods of Developing Flow Patterns
1. Analytical Method
a. Governing equation is highly non linear PDE
b. Closed form solution is limited to very few cases
c. Closed form solution is available for ideal flow and incompressible flow

2. Computational Method, CFD

a. Numerical or Computational Fluid Dynamics

3. Experimental Method
a. Flow Visualization (oil droplet, smoke and very thin thread or yarn)

12
 Pathline, Streakline and Streamline
 
Streamline: It has been defined earlier: V  dS = 0
Pathline: This is a line drawn through the flow field in such a way that it
defines the path that a given (actual) particle of fluid has taken. See Figure 5.

Fluid particle at t = tstart

Pathline A pathline is formed by following the

actual path of a fluid particle.

Fluid particle at t = tend

Fluid particle at some
intermediate time

Figure 5
13
 Pathline, Streakline and Streamline
Streakline
The locations or trace of injected dye or smoke (not the actual particle) at a
given point in the flow field as it travels downstream
Or: Streaklines are the most common flow pattern generated in a physical
experiment.

Streaklines produced by coloured fluid

introduced upstream; since the flow is
steady, these streaklines are the same as
streamlines and pathlines.

Figure 6
14
Difference between Path, Streak and Stream-
lines

➢ In steady flow all three lines are coincident (the same) if they start from the
same point.

➢ In unsteady flow: the pathline, streakline and streamline can be three

distinct lines.

➢ Pathline and streakline provide a history of the flow field and the
streamline indicate the current flow pattern.

15
 Facts about Streamlines

➢ Close to a solid boundary, streamlines are parallel to the boundary.

➢ Because the fluid is moving in the same direction as the streamlines, fluid
can not cross a streamline.

➢ Streamlines can not cross each other. If they were to cross, this would
indicate two different velocities at the same point. This is not physically
possible.

➢ This implies that any particle of fluid starting on a streamline will stay on
that same streamline throughout the fluid.

16
 Streamtube

➢ A useful technique in fluid flow analysis is

to consider only a part of the total fluid in
isolation from the rest. 3-D

➢ This can be done by imagining a tubular

surface formed by streamlines along which
the fluid flows as shown in Figure 7.

➢ This tubular surface is called a streamtube.

2-D

Figure 7 17
 Laminar and Turbulent Flows
Turbulent flow is characterized by a mixing action throughout the flow field,
and this mixing is caused by eddies of varying size within the flow.

It is characterized by the following:

Full of irregularities, eddies and vortices
(mixing flow). Flow is more uniform little
away from the wall.

Velocity is fluctuating. Velocity field is

stochastic that is "the velocity components
are random variable described by their
statistical properties
Figure 8
18
 Laminar and Turbulent Flows
Laminar flow is the type of flow with a very smooth appearance.

No mixing phenomena and eddies. A typical example is the flow of honey or

thick syrup from a pitcher.

It is characterized by the following:

➢ Smooth appearance layer of flow
➢ Velocity distribution is parabolic (less
uniform)
➢ Velocity is constant with time at any
given position (nofluctuation)
Figure 9
19
Comparison of Laminar and Turbulent Flows

20
 Real Fluid Flow and Ideal Fluid Flow

Real Fluid Flow: This flow implies friction effect (viscosity exists, called
viscous fluid flow)

Ideal fluid flow: It is a hypothetical fluid. It assumes no friction (viscosity

= 0, called inviscid flow)

21
One-Dimensional and Multidimensional Flow
One-Dimensional (1-D) Flow
➢ Consider the velocity distribution for an axisymmetric flow in a circular
duct as shown in Figure 10.
➢ The flow is uniform, or fully developed, so the velocity does not change in
the flow direction (z).
➢ The velocity depends on only one spatial dimension, namely the radius r,
hence the name one-dimensional (1-D) flow.

Figure 10
22
One-Dimensional and Multidimensional Flow
Two-Dimensional (2-D) Flow
➢ For a two-dimensional flow, the velocity depends on two dimensions,
namely x and y.
➢ Consider the velocity distribution for a uniform flow in a square duct as
shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11

23
One-Dimensional and Multidimensional Flow
Three-Dimensional (3-D) Flow
➢ For a three-dimensional flow, the velocity depends on three dimensions,
namely x, y and z.
➢ Consider the velocity distribution in a square duct as shown in Figure 12.
➢ Note that the duct cross-sectional area is expanding in the flow direction
(z-direction).

➢ This implies that the velocity will depend on the z direction as well as x and
y.

24
Figure 12
 Acceleration
Eulerian formulation
The velocity at a point in the flow field is a function of both space and time.

Thus,
V = u(x,y,z,t) i + v(x,y,z,t)j + w(x,y,z,t)k
The acceleration of a fluid particle in the x direction is given by:
ax = du(x,y,z,t)/dt
By using the chain rule for the differentiation of a multivariable function, the
following is obtained:
 u dx u dy u dz u dt
ax = + + +
x dt y dt z dt t dt
But
dx dy
u= and v =
dt dt 25
 Acceleration
Local Acceleration
( )
t
➢These terms are called local accelerations. A local acceleration is defined as the
variation of velocity with time at a point on the pathline.
➢Local acceleration terms occur only when a flow field is unsteady.
➢In a steady flow, the local acceleration is zero.
Convective Acceleration
The remaining terms of the total acceleration equation are called convective
accelerations. Convective acceleration depends on the variation of velocity along the
pathline.
( ) ( ) ( )
u +v +w
x y z
Convective accelerations occur when velocity is a function of position in a flow field. In
uniform flows, the convective acceleration is zero.
26
 Acceleration
Normal and Tangential Components

Figure 13

➢Now the fluid particle is moving along the streamline with a curvilinear
motion. This implies the acceleration is given as:

dV/dt = d/dt( V(s,t) et)

27
 Acceleration
Normal and Tangential Components

Figure 13
➢The final form of the acceleration of a fluid particle in curvilinear motion is:
 V V V2 
a = (V + )eˆt + ( )en
s t r
Centripetal
➢The first term is the tangential acceleration and the second term is the
normal acceleration and r is the radius of curvature of the path. 28
MC/EL/RN/ES/PE/MR/MN/GL 264
(Fluid Mechanics 1)

Flowing Fluids and Pressure Variation

(Dynamics)
Part 2

29
 Objectives for the day…

➢Derive Euler’s equation of motion

30
 Euler’s Equation
Euler’s equation helps us to
understand pressure variation.
Derivation
Consider the fluid particle which is
oriented in an arbitrary direction l at
an angle α to the horizontal as shown
in Figure 1.
From dynamics: Fpressure + Fgravity = mal
 F = ma
l l (1) Fpressure = pA − ( p + p )A
(2)
The forces acting on the element along Fgravity = W sin  = (lA)sin 
the l direction are due to pressure and
gravitational forces.
m = Al 31
 Euler’s Equation
On substitution of equation(s) (2) into equation (1) gives:

pA − ( p + p )A − lA sin  = Alal

Simplifying gives:
p
− −  sin  = al
l
p p z z
Note that lim = and sin  = lim = (reducing particle to an
l →0 l l l →0 l l infinitesimal size)
t

Then
p z
− − = al
l l

and for constant specific weight, we have: − ( p + z ) = al
l 32
 Euler’s Equation
 0
− ( p + z ) = al
Note: l
When the acceleration is zero then the Euler’s equation reduces to


( p + z ) = 0 with a solution of p + z = const
l
which is the hydrostatic equation.
In a flow with parallel streamlines, the pressure in the direction normal to
the streamlines is hydrostatic because there is no acceleration in this
direction

33
 Euler’s Equation
Application: Uniform acceleration of liquid in a tank
Along A’B’ we have
p z
− − = al
l l
But the pressure is constant
which is atmospheric and
al = a x cos 

With these considerations, (z ) = − ax cos
l

dz a x cos
or, =
dl g
dz a x cos ax
But, = − sin  then sin  = or tan  = 34
dl g g
MC/EL/RN/ES/PE/MR/MN/GL 264
(Fluid Mechanics 1)
Flowing Fluids and Pressure Variation
(Dynamics)
Part 3

35
 Objectives for the day…

➢Derive Bernoulli’s equation and it’s applications

36
 Bernoulli’s Equation
The Bernoulli’s Equation along a Streamline
It is an integration of Euler’s equation along a pathline in a steady flow of
an incompressible fluid.
By applying Euler’s equation along a pathline with l replaced by s (distance
along pathline) and al replaced by at (tangent to pathline), we get,

− ( p + z ) = at
s
Where the tangential acceleration is given by

V V
at = V +
s t 37
 Bernoulli’s Equation
For steady state, the local acceleration (time domain) becomes zero and
pathline becomes streamline. By removing local acceleration from the
tangential acceleration equation and substituting, Euler’s equation
becomes
d V 2 
− ( p + z ) = V
d dV
=   
ds ds ds  2 
Re-arranging
d  V2 
 p + z +   = 0
ds  2 

Integrating V2
p + z +  =C
2
The sum of piezometric pressure (first two terms) and kinetic pressure (last
term) is constant along a streamline for the steady flow of incompressible,
inviscid fluid. 38
 Bernoulli’s Equation
Dividing through by specific weight, Bernoulli’s equation along a
streamline can be rewritten as,

p V2 V2
+z+ = h+ =C
 2g 2g

Where h is the piezometric head and the other term is the velocity head.

39
Physical interpretation of Bernoulli’s
Equation

V2
( )
2g

p
( + z)


40
 Bernoulli’s Equation
Case1: Energy is conserved

➢Head: is a concept that used to characterize the balance of work and

energy in a flowing fluid.

➢A head can be visualized as the height of a column of liquid

p V2 V2
+z+ = h+ =C
 2g 2g

(Piezometric Head) + (Velocity Head) = (constant along

streamline)

➢ Each type of head describes a work or energy term

41
 Bernoulli’s Equation
p V2 V2
Case1: Energy is conserved +z+ = h+ =C
 2g 2g

➢Velocity head characterizes the kinetic energy in a flowing fluid

➢Elevation head characterizes the gravitational potential energy of a fluid

➢Pressure head is related to work done by the pressure force

➢The total head is constant

42
 Bernoulli’s Equation
p V2 V2
Case1: Energy is conserved +z+ = h+ =C
 2g 2g
➢The fluid is not losing energy as it flows

➢The viscous effect is the cause of the energy loss

➢Viscous effect is neglected in Bernoulli’s and Euler Equation

43
 Bernoulli’s Equation

Case 2: Velocity and Pressure vary inversely

p V2 V2
+z+ = h+ =C
 2g 2g

( p + z ) + V 2 = C
1
2
 Piezometric   dynamic 
  +   = C
 pressure   pressure

Piezometric pressure varies inversely with velocity

44
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Stagnation Tube (used to measure the sum of
static and kinetic pressure)
By applying Bernoulli's Equation between points (1)
and (2) 2
V1 2
V2
p1 + + z1 = p2 + + z2
2 2
Where p1 = d p2 =  (l + d )
And V2 = 0 (stagnation)

So
V =
2 2
( p2 − p1 )

1

or
V =
2 2
 (l + d ) − d  = 2 gl  V1 = 2 gl

1 45
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Pitot Tube (more versatile than the stagnation tube)
Applying Bernoulli's equation between point 1 (stagnation point) and
2 then
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2
 2g  2g
V1 = 0 (stagnation point)
V2 = V (velocity of the flow)
Solving for V2 yields
12
2 
V2 =  ( p z ,1 − p z , 2 )
 
A pitot tube can be used to measure flow velocity in a pressurized pipe. A
stagnation tube is not convenient to be used in such a situation. 46
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Siphon (device used to transfer fluids from a lower level to a higher level)
Applying Bernoulli's equation between points 1 and 3 then
2 2
p1 V p3 V 2
+ + z1 =
1
+ + z3 3

 2g  2g z h2
1
But p1 = p3 = patm = 0
Datum line
z1 = 0 (reference or datum line)
V1 = 0 (almost still due to slow flow rate in siphon) h3
z3 = -h3

Solving for V3 gives: 3

V3 = (2 gh3 )1 2 = 2 gh3
47
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Torricelli’s Theorem
Consider a liquid tank of height H with a hole near the ground. Liquid is
draining out from the hole. Tank and hole are open to atmosphere.
Applying Bernoulli's equation between points 1 and 2
Datum line
then
p1 V12 p2 V22 1
+ + z1 = + + z2
 2g  2g
But p1 = p2 = patm = 0 H
z1 = 0 (reference or datum line)
V1 = 0 (almost still due to large tank size)
z2 = H 2

Solving for V2 gives:

V2 = (2 gH )1 2 = 2 gH 48
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Flow Through a Small Orifice (Vena Contracta Effect)
The vena contracta is the reduction in the area/diameter of a fluid jet after
it emerges from a circular aperture in a pressurized reservoir.
Applying Bernoulli's equation between points 1
and 2 will yield:
V2 = 2 gh
Actual velocity of the jet, Vj = CvV2
where Cv is the coefficient of velocity to correct
dh
the theoretical velocity V2.
dj
Actual area Aj is obtained by using the equation:
Aj = CcAh
With the above information the discharge can be
49
found.
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Free Jets
Consider fluid in a tank. A nozzle is arranged at the bottom of the tank. Fluid
flows through the nozzle due to gravity and consequently a jet is observed.
Applying Bernoulli's equation between points 1
and 2 will yield: Datum line

p1 V12 p2 V22 1
+ + z1 = + + z2
 2g  2g
But p1 = p2 = patm = 0
z1 = 0 (reference or datum line) h
V1 = 0 (almost still due large tank size)
z2 = -(h + l)
Solving for V2 gives: l
2
V2 = [2 g (h + l )]
12
= 2 g (h + l ) 50
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Venturi Tube
➢ This is a device made up of a contraction followed by a diverging section.
The contraction is usually referred to as the throat.
➢ Fluids moving toward the contraction are speeded up according to the
continuity equation. In addition, pressure decreases as velocity increases in
terms of Bernoulli’s equation.

51
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Venturi Tube
➢ A famous application of a Venturi tube is a carburetor.
➢ The Venturi tube is used to measure the flow rate in a pipe.
From continuity,
Q1 = Q2
where, Q1 and Q2 are the
volumetric flow rates at point 1
and 2 respectively.
By definition,
Q = AV
where, A and V are the cross-sectional area and
velocity respectively
Thus, A1V1 = A2V2 52
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Venturi Tube

Thus, A1V1 = A2V2

A1
=> V2 = V1
A2
Applying Bernoulli's equation
between points 1 and 2:
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2
 2g  2g
Rearranging:
p1 − p2 V22 − V12
= + ( z 2 − z1 )
 2g 53
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Venturi Tube
Rearranging:
p1 − p2 V22 − V12
= + ( z 2 − z1 )
 2g
On substitution:
2
 A1 
V   − V12
1
2

p1 − p2  A2 
=> = + ( z 2 − z1 )
 2g
2  
2
p1 − p2 V1  A1 
=> =   − 1 + ( z 2 − z1 )
 2 g  A2  

54
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Venturi Tube


p1 − p2 V  A1 
2
2

= 1
  − 1 + ( z 2 − z1 )
 2 g  A2  

For the case where z1 = z2 (horizontal flow)

Thus, the above equation reduces to:


p1 − p2 V  A1 
2
2

= 1
  − 1
 2 g  A2  


55
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Example
Piezometric tubes are tapped into a venturi
section as shown in the figure. The liquid is
incompressible.

The upstream piezometric head is 1 m, and the

piezometric head at the throat is 0.5 m.

The velocity in the throat section is twice as

large as in the approach section.

Find the velocity in the throat section.

56
MC/EL/RN/ES/PE/MR/MN/GL 264
(Fluid Mechanics 1)

Flowing Fluids and Pressure Variation

(Dynamics)
Part 4

57
 Objectives for the day…

➢Discuss the concept of Rotation and Vorticity

➢Differentiate between rotational and irrotational flows

58
 Rotation and Vorticity

Concept of Rotation

Rotation is defined as the average

rotation of two initially mutually
perpendicular faces of a fluid element
Rotating tank of fluid

It can be identified by drawing a bisector

of two perpendicular faces. If the angle
between the bisector and the x-axis
varies then the flow is rotational.

59
 Rotation and Vorticity

Concept of Rotation
1  1
 =  +  A = + ( A +  B )
2 4 2

 (
1  
 =  A +B
2
)

60
 Rotation and Vorticity
Bisector

element at t + t


y B

element at t
A
y B
x
u
u+ x
v x
( )
v+ x 1  
x 
 =  A −B
2
A Counterclockwise ( positive)
B Clockwise ( Negative) 61
 Rotation and Vorticity
The rotational rate of the bisector is half the sum of the rotational rate of each side,

 = ( A −  B )
 1  
2
The rotational rate of the element sides is related
to the velocity gradients. The angle  A is given by:

 v + v x t − vt
 
y − y A  x  v
 A  B   t
x x x
v
In the limit, as t → 0, A =

x
u
In a similar manner, B =

y 62
 Rotation and Vorticity
The rotation rate about the z-axis will be  z
And this component of rotational velocity is defined as
1  v u 
 z =  − 
2  x y 
Similarly,
1  w v  1  u w 
 x =  −  and  y =  − 
2  y z  2  z x 
So, the rate of rotation vector is
   
 =  xi +  y j +  z k

Where for irrotational flow =0
Or, v u w v u w
= ; = ; =
x y y z z x 63
 Rotation and Vorticity

Vorticity
It is twice the rate of rotation vector, or

 
 = 2
 w v    u w    v u  
=  − i +  −  j +  − k
 y z   z x   x y 

=  V

The vorticity vector is everywhere zero for an irrotational flow.

64
 Rotation and Vorticity
Rotation in Flows with Concentric Streamlines
As before, Bisector

 (
1  
 =  A +B
2
)
A Counterclockwise ( positive)
B Counterclockwise ( positive) 

From the geometry of the figure, one

can easily find that
V dV V
A = = 
and  B =
r dr r
Therefore, the rotation rate about the z-
axis can be obtained as:
1  dV V 
z =  +  (**)
2  dr r  65
 Rotation and Vorticity
Rotation in Flows with Concentric Streamlines

For a flow rotating as a solid body, V = ωr, and is called “forced vortex”.
Applying to equation (**), we have:
1d 
 z =  (r ) +   = 
2  dr 

For an irrotational flow,

1  dV V 
z =  + =0
2  dr r 

And this is called “free vortex”. Under “free vortex”:

dV V dV dr C
=−  =− V =
dr r V r r
66
 Rotation and Vorticity

Example
The vector V = 10xi – 10yj represents a two-dimensional velocity
field. Is the flow irrotational?

67
 Rotation and Vorticity

Vortices
A vortex is the motion of a multitude of fluid particles around
a common center.

Forced vortex:
The fluid rotates as a rigid body (V = ωr)

Free Vortex:
The velocity varies inversely with radius V = C 
 r
68
 Bernoulli’s Equation in Irrotational Flow
dV V
For a free vortex =−
dr r

So, from Euler’s equation:

V2 dV d  V 2 
− ( p + z ) = − 
d
= V =   
dr r dr dr  2 

Re-arranging for constant density gives:

d  V2
 p + z +   = 0
dr  2 
Integrating yields:
V2
p + z +  =C
2
This is Bernoulli’s equation with C as constant in the r direction. 69
 Pressure Coefficient (Cp)
It is a dimensionless quantity defined as,

p − p0 h − h0
For a gas: Cp = For a liquid: Cp =
1 V02
V02
2
2g
where, p is the local pressure and po and Vo are the free-stream pressure and
velocity respectively.
By applying Bernoulli’s equation, it is easy to show that pressure coefficient at
stagnation (V=0) is unity, following:

V02 V12 h1 − h0
h0 + = h1 + Cp = =1
which implies: V02
2g 2g
2g
70
Pressure Variation in Tornado (Cyclonic Storm)

Read through textbook

71
Pressure Distribution Around a Circular Cylinder –
Ideal Fluid (Nonviscous and Incompressible)

72
 Pressure Distribution Around a Circular Cylinder –
Real Fluid
Flow Separation
This occurs when the fluid pathlines adjacent to the body deviate from the
contour of the body and produce a wake. This is a common condition. It tends to
increase drag, reduce lift and produce unsteady forces that can lead to structural
failure.

73
 Pressure Distribution Around a Circular Cylinder –
Real Fluid
Flow Separation
Smoke traces about an airfoil with a large angle of attack (Courtesy of Education
Development Center, Inc., Newton, MA).

74
Pressure Distribution Around a Circular Cylinder –
Real Fluid
Flow Separation

75