Section 6-

CHALLENGING
BEHAVIORS
6.1 Functions of Behavior
6.2 Antecedent Modifications
6.3 Differential
Reinforcement
6.4 Functional Communication
Training (FCT)
6.5 Extinction (In practice)
 Behavior

Behavior :
An observable and measurable act of a person
(You can see it or hear it, count it or time it)

Behavior is not:
Feelings or emotions
 Is it Behavior?

Behavior Not Behavior

• Crying • Mad
• Spitting • Anxious
• Hitting • Happy
• Rocking • Agitated
• Laughing • Frustrated
 Behavior

It is important to define behavior in a way that

describes what it looks like,
not what we suspect it means or how we
suspect the person feels.
 Discussion

Since the last training, have you thought of

new behaviors of concern that you wanted to
target for reduction? How did you decide
what you wanted to target?
 Identifying Behavior to Target
for Reduction

• Behavior that is dangerous to child or others

• Behavior that interferes with participation in meaningful activities
• Behavior that disrupts others and prevents them from participating in
meaningful activities
• Behavior that is stigmatizing (likely to prevent a child from being
included)
• Not all unusual or annoying behavior needs to be
targeted for reduction

• Junk behavior
The Functions of Behavior
 Discussion

Why do students engage in challenging

behavior?
 Now, let’s get personal…
Why do you and I behave the way we do?
 The answer:

• It works for us!!

• We have learned through our experiences
and through conditioning what is effective
in getting our needs and desires met.
• We also do what we are motivated to do,
what we find enjoyable, and what is
reinforcing to us.
 The Functions of Behavior

All behavior serves a purpose

for the person who does it
 The Functions of Behavior

• Behavior is repeated because the consequences

are desirable

• We engage in behavior in ways that get us what

we want, or help us avoid or escape things we
don’t want
 The 4 Functions of Behavior

1. To get attention
2. To get access to an item or activity
3. To escape or avoid something
4. Sensory Stimulation
The 4 Functions of Behavior
The Functions of Behavior
 Attention

Behavior that results in immediate attention from

others
• This can be “positive” or “negative” attention

Examples:
• Saying “Excuse me?” and Mom looks at you
• Taking your sister’s toy and she chases you
• Throwing papers and your teacher yells at you
• Crying and mom cuddles you
• Running away, and turning to see if teacher is following
you
 Access to Items

Behavior that results in getting preferred objects,

items, or activities

Examples:
• Grabbing a toy from a peer
• Asking for a snack or candy
• Leaving circle time and going to play with trains
• Climbing a cabinet to get a game
• Saying “push me higher” and dad pushes you on
swing
 Avoidance/Escape

Behavior that results in ending or delaying

disliked events

Examples:
• Complete chores; mom stops nagging
• Complete assignment; avoid homework later
• Hang up phone when telemarketer calls; conversation
stops
• Flop to the floor; delay coming in from recess
• Hit peers; escape group work/circle time
• Throw a tantrum; avoid going to the bathroom
 Automatic

Behaviors that are fun by themselves; they feel good,

look fun, smell cool, etc.
• Typically things that happen when child is alone or all the
time no matter where they are

Examples:
• Hand flapping, body rocking, flicking fingers by eyes
• Making noises, reciting lines from movies, humming
• Spinning wheels on a car, opening and closing door
repeatedly, playing with string, banging hangers together
• Going for a run, rubbing your temples, twirling your hair,
scratching an itch, tapping your foot, fidget spinners
 Discussion

Do you engage in any behavior that doesn’t

fit in to one of these categories?
Identifying the Function of
Problem Behavior
 The Behavioral Event

To understand behavior, we have to know the whole story

(beginning, middle, end)

A description of the behavior alone is not sufficient.

 ABC Recording

ABC data helps identify

1. The events or conditions that make the target behavior
more likely to be exhibited.
2. The events that precede or “trigger” the target
behavior.
3. The consequences that maintain the behavior (the
purpose of the behavior).
 ABC Analysis

1. Identify the behavior

 ABC Analysis

2. Identify the antecedent and the consequence

Maria is at the table with a classmate and her teacher. Her teacher is talking to her
classmate about her her upcoming birthday party. Maria begins to yell, bang on the
table, and throw her materials. Her teacher sits down with her, holds her hands,
and offers reassurance.

What function would a pattern of behavior like this suggest?

When Joey is given a math assignment, he gets out of his desk, runs around the
room and knocks classmates books and papers on the floor. An administrator is
called to remove him from the classroom.

What function would a pattern of behavior like this suggest?

 Sam tries to run from the cafeteria repeatedly as soon as he finishes his lunch. He
is given an iPad and walked back to the table.

Antecedent Behavior Consequence

Finishes lunch Sam attempts to run from Given iPad and returned to
cafeteria table

What function would a pattern of behavior like this suggest?

When the class starts dribbling basketballs in the gym, Jose sits, covers his ears with
his hands, and rocks back and forth.

Antecedent Behavior Consequence

Classmates start bouncing Jose sits, covers ears, rocks Lessens volume of the
basketballs n the gym basketballs

What function would a pattern of behavior like this suggest?

 Antecedents & Antecedent
Modifications

Antecedent -- the context in which a person behaves

• Can be a specific stimulus for the behavior

• Can be other variables within the environment that influence behavior

Examples of antecedents:

• Environmental conditions (noise level, temperature, lighting)

• Social/interactional factors (specific people, type of interaction required by an activity)
• Curriculum and instruction (task difficulty, presentation of information, task duration)
• Personal and control issues (preference)
• Medical/physiological issues (anxiety, hunger, pain, fatigue)
 Antecedent Modifications
Categories of Antecedent-Based
How do you know what antecedent Strategies:
modifications to try?
 Modify Instructional Delivery
1. Conduct an FBA  Modify Structure and Organization
2. Determine function of the behavior of the Environment

3. Identify relevant antecedent conditions  Use Behavior Management

4. Modify the relevant antecedent conditions in a

way that addresses the function of the
behavior.

(Umbreit, Ferro, Liaupsin, & Lane, 2007)

 Scheduled Exercise
(Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*)
 Definition: Scheduled Exercise is used to modify routines and involves the student participating in scheduled physical
activities on a daily basis to help deter aggressive behaviors from occuring.
 Functions Addressed: Escape & Sensory

 Steps of the Intervention:

1. Conduct an FBA and determine if the function of the student’s behavior is escape or sensory
2. Obtain parent permission for students to participate in physical activity. (No medical concerns)
3. Gather materials needed for intervention: exercise equipment, timers, and reinforcers
4. Each exercise is described and modeled for the students
5. Exercise Breaks are completed across all settings (i.e., art, music, recess, PE, lunch)
6. Sessions can range from 1-5 minutes depending on the students every hour with a 20 minute session at arrival and
immediately after lunch.
7. Prompts are provided by staff as needed
8. The exercises completed during the breaks are selected at random out of a bucket
9. Praise or reinforcers are given
10. Participation is recorded on exercise chart. Student is responsible for placing a sticker or check mark on chart.
11. Each student could earn up to 7 stickers a day depending on time of school day X 5 days =35 stickers. After 35 stickers
student earns a trip to prize box or classroom store etc.

 Examples: jumping rope, yoga, slow jogging, leg raises, etc.

• Data Collection Methods: Frequency count of all occurrences of problem behaviors, or participation chart for all
exercise activities
(Cannella-Malone, Tullis & Kazee, 2011)
 Behavioral Momentum
(Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*)
 Definition: Providing a few easy tasks prior to giving the more difficult target tasks.
 Functions Addressed: Escape

 Behavioral Momentum (Modifying Instruction)

a. 2 x 2=___ 4 x 3=___ 5 x 6=___ 254 x 124=___ 639 x 427=___

b. 345 x 126=___ 399 x 782=___ 2145 x 346=___ 4598 x 2434=___

High-p – more likely to complete

Low-p – less likely to complete

 Steps of the Intervention:

1. Give 3-5 short mastered tasks using a face pace
2. Praise compliance with each task
3. Then, give the more difficult target task

Previous research using behavioral momentum in learning tasks indicates preceding “difficult” tasks with “easier” tasks can also increase accuracy
with the difficult tasks

 Examples: reading sight words - when preceding target words with below-grade-level words, fluency improves with the target words
• Data Collection Methods: Data collection sheets. Keep track of requests that result in compliance and requests that do not and make
adjustments as needed
(Vostal & Lee, 2011)
 Check In/Check Out (CISCO or BEP)
(Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*)
 Definition: Check In/Check Out is a prevention intervention that includes mentoring, goal setting, regular feedback on
appropriate and inappropriate behavior, positive reinforcement, and family engagement.
 Functions Addressed: Attention

 Steps of the Intervention:

1. A team determines target behaviors and creates goals to address those behaviors
2. A “checker” is identified.
3. The student checks in with a checker every morning
4. The checker provides the student with the CICO card that lists the behaviors and the point goals for the day
5. The student takes the CICO card to all classes
6. Teachers score the student’s behavior on the CICO card at the end of each class, offering the student immediate feedback on behavior
7. At the end of the day, the student checks out with the checker
8. The checker summarizes the data, gives the student feedback, and administers the reinforcement.
9. The student takes the CICO card home for parents to sign.
10. The next morning, the student returns the signed card to the checker and the CICO cycle starts all over again.

 Example: EBD student with attention seeking behavior only respects male role models, but he has no male teachers.
School coach is identified as the student’s mentor. Student behavioral goals are identified by the IEP team and prevention
intervention is established and the coach is the checker and mentor for the student.

• Data Collection Methods: Point card, CISCO-SWIS point cards are used to determine overall effectiveness of the
intervention with the student and overall effectiveness of the intervention within the school

(Crone, Horner, & Hawken, 2004)

Implementing CICO with Students with Intellectual Disabilities
 Effective Instruction Delivery (EID)
(Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*)
 Definition: Effective Instruction Delivery (EID) occurs when the teacher effectively engages students in
learning by using a variety of instructional strategies in order to meet individual learning needs.
 Functions Addressed: Escape & Attention

 Steps of the Intervention:

Provide all instructions/directions with the following components:
1. with demanded eye contact (e.g., “John, look at me”)
2. in close proximity to the child (within 5 feet of the child)
3. as a directive statement (e.g., “Hand me the Barney book”)
4. with descriptive wording (e.g., “Put the blue block on the table”)
5. allowing a 5 s wait period following the command for response initiation

 Example: Teaching to mastery using ex. Universal Design for Learning (UDL), differentiation, and/or
learning styles (ex. Visual (spatial), auditory (musical), verbal (linguistic), physical (kinesthetic), logical
(mathematical), social (interpersonal), solitary (intrapersonal)

• Data Collection Methods: Authentic assessments, work samples, rubrics, data collection

(Speights-Roberts, Tingstrom, Olmi, & Bellipanni, 2008)

 Modify Environment
(Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*)
 Definition: Antecedent modifications to establish a positive, orderly, predictable and motivating classroom environment.
 Functions Addressed: Attention, Escape, & Sensory

 Steps of the Intervention:

1. Set up definition of the physical change or routine change of classroom.
• What does it look like in the classroom?
2. Set up classroom so that intervention can be successful
• What needs to be added or changed in the environment to make the intervention
• Examples:
Attention Examples:
• Create specific areas within the classroom in which different behaviors are expected (sitting quietly in the individual work space, talking in
the small group space).
• Balance activities across the day, activity, or class (e.g., quiet/noisy, active/passive, large group/small group, adult-directed/learner-directed
• Zoning – classroom staff are assigned different areas and activities within the room throughout the day to assist with transitions and
encourage on-task behavior.
Escape Examples:
• Decrease or increase work difficulty
• Work time length
• Mode of task completion (i.e. instead of writing, student uses computer or tape recorder)
• Incorporating student interests (i.e. instead of requiring specific topics of assignments, allow student to integrate their own interests in
functional or meaningful ways)
Sensory Examples:
• Dim the lighting in the classroom
• Play calming music during downtimes
• Decrease auditory and visual distractions (especially during difficult tasks)
• Data Collection Methods: ABC, frequency
http://www.interventioncentral.org/
http://specialed.about.com/od/iep/tp/Data-Collection-For-Individual-Education-Plan-Implementation.htm
 Scheduled Breaks
(Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*)

 Definition: Temporary removal or break from instructional stimuli that helps to eliminate problematic
behavior.
 Functions Addressed: Escape

 Steps of the Intervention:

 Provide an acceptable break from the demand situation on a set schedule, whether behavior
occurs or not.

 Example:
1. Scheduled breaks were provided to a student who exhibited self injurious behaviors prior to
transitions. Over time, the time between breaks was increased over time and the problematic
behaviors decreased.

 Data Collection Methods: Frequency, duration

 Instruction from Novel Staff /
Modifying Instruction
(Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*)
Definition: This function based intervention focuses on the escape function for students who have established a
learned history with familiar staff and uses novel staff to conduct instruction instead as an antecedent intervention.
Functions addressed: Escape

Steps of Intervention:
• A functional assessment was given and indicated that tantrums were most likely to occur during “high demand”
activities. It was noted that the girl did not have tantrums in the presence of novel staff.
• Classroom observations, staff interviews, and data was reviewed
• Select staff to be the novel staff for the intervention (more than 4 and none of them should have had previous direct
contact with student)
• Weekly schedule adjusted to have 1 of them novel staff with student during high demand activities.
• Novel staff greets student at activity and completes activity with student while familiar staff removes themselves
from the activity
• During intervention, contingent consequences for behavior remain to same as in the baseline phase.
• Data on frequency and duration is collected weekly and reviewed.

Important Notes:
 Novel Staff should be scheduled to work with student before the behavior begins
 Novel staff should have no previous contact with student

(Luiselli & Murbach, 2002)

40
Preferred Items/ High Interest Items
(Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*)
 Definition: The use of highly preferred or high-interest items/topics embedded within an
existing curriculum is proven to reduce problem behaviors, including aggression and
elopement, and increase appropriate, on-task behaviors in school settings for students with
both Emotional-Behavior Disorders and Autism Spectrum Disorder.
 Functions Addressed: Attention, Escape, & Sensory

 Steps of the Intervention:

1. Conduct a Functional Behavior Assessment to determine if the target behavior serves an escape,
attention, or access to tangibles function.
2. Identify highly reinforcing or preferred items or topics for the student through preference
assessments, observations, parent interviews/questionnaires, or student interviews/questionnaires.
Choose a method based on student age, level of cognitive functioning, and severity of behavior.
3. Collect baseline data on frequency or duration of behavior prior to introduction of preferred items to
determine how often and for how long access should be given and how this access may vary across
the school day.
1. For example, if the data indicate that the student engages in problem behavior 3 times in an hour, he might initially
have access to his preferred item(s) 3 or 4 times an hour. Or, if the data show more frequent problem behavior
during Math than other periods, he might have more frequent opportunities to access items during Math.
4. Access to preferred or high-interest items or topics (or a choice of several items) should be provided
to the student on a fixed schedule (noncontingent on behavior) in a timed break format between work
sessions, incorporated into the academic tasks themselves, or as a reward immediately following
appropriate behavior. Access to items may be paired with social interaction with staff or peers (for an
attention function) or given in isolation (for an escape or tangible function).
5. Used effectively as both an antecedent modification (noncontingent access on a schedule) and a
consequence strategy (access provided contingent of appropriate behavior), use of high-interest
items/preferred topics should reduce problem behavior, especially when used in conjunction with
other function-based interventions, such as verbal praise and proximity control (attention function) or
self-monitoring and scheduled exercise (escape function).
 Preteaching
(Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*)

 Definition: Preteaching usually includes teaching key component skills prior to working
with the lesson or unit. It works best when paired with direct instruction.
 Functions addressed: Escape

 Steps of Intervention:
This intervention will be used if the student is escaping task demand. When examining the Functional
Behavior Assessment, you may see a spike in behavior during a specific academic task throughout xthe
day (i.e. reading).
1. Gather information on academic skills. This may be a curriculum-based measurement or
other academic measurement.
2. Identify problem skill (i.e. vocabulary, fluency, comprehension)
3. Provide daily pre-teaching on that skill – 10-15 mins. (i.e. teach vocabulary words one day
ahead of the text that was to be studied in class)
4. Allow for review before lessons (i.e. index cards)

 Video Examples:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aJHZ8tlbZ_Y

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=688tesXvmmQ

42
 Proximity Control
(Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*)

 Definition: Proximity control is a frequently used strategy where the teacher (or other adults in the
room) make a meaningful effort to be physically near problem areas or target students.
 Functions addressed: Attention, Escape

 Steps of Intervention:
1. Set up definition**
a. How far away from the student should staff be? Be specific – 3 feet? 2 feet?
b. What does it look like during class periods? Desk close to teacher’s desk?
2. Set up classroom so that staff can be successful
3. Move student desk; move teacher desk

 Examples:
Staff attention example: Because David enjoys attention from staff at a high rate and often will engage in
inappropriate behavior to get that attention, his teacher has moved his desk close to hers so that she is able to give
him a high rate of reinforcement without disrupting the rest of the class.

Peer attention example: When Katie sits next to a specific peer, the frequency of her behavior increases. Keeping that
in mind, the teacher increases proximity to that peer by placing Katie’s desk on the opposite side of the classroom from
the peer. The teacher takes data on this by using momentary time sampling.

Escape example: When distressed, Johnny has a tendency to jump up and leave the classroom by the door or the
window. In order to reduce this behavior, his teacher has moved his desk away from the door and the window and
close to hers, blocking him from being able to leave the classroom easily without her being able to block.

(May & Howe, 2013)

43
 Reduce Task Demand
(Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*)

Definition: Tasks triggering behavior are broken down into shorter steps (reducing duration), and given to the student one at a time with
individual instructions for each step.
Functions addressed: Escape

Steps of Intervention:
1. Given smaller units of work
2. Use timer to prompt feedback on work
3. Reinforce on-task behavior with free time after completing set amount of work
4. If problem behavior occurs, redirect back to task (see escape extinction)
5. Thin intervention by adding time to work or reducing free time as successful

Examples of Intervention:
• Lower functioning students: Break assignments into 1-2 tasks at a time. (if a worksheet has 10 problems on it, cut out one or two with scissors and present them
one at a time)
• Set up time structures: i.e.: 5 minutes of work, 3 minutes of free time
• 2 days of no problem behavior = 6 minutes of work, 3 minutes of free time

(Moore, Anderson, & Kumar, 2005)

 Self Modeling
(Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*)

 Definition: Students repeatedly watch recordings of oneself portraying positive or exemplary

behaviors.
 Functions addressed: Attention, Escape

 Steps of Intervention:
1. Obtain consent to video tape student.
2. Identify desirable behaviors, or the behavior you want to see the student doing.
3. Gather correct equipment (i.e. iPad, camera, etc.)
4. Create intervention recordings (1-3 minutes in length) in which students themselves are portraying that behavior.
5. If needed, edit recording so that no interfering behavior is portrayed.
6. Determine environment and time of day for video watching.
7. Determine if reward is necessary.
8. Show video(s) on regular basis. Provide prompting as necessary.
9. Collect progress monitoring data
10. Fade video as necessary

 Examples:
• For elementary students, video may include clapping noises at the end of videos or a “good job!!”
• For ASD students or lower functioning students, evaluate level of attention span student has.

Significant editing may need to take place in order to show the student exhibiting behavior you want to see. Can also
consider looping the video to show the behavior again and again.

(Bilias-lolis, et.al.,2012)
45
 Visual Cues
(Prevention/Antecedent Intervention*)
 Definition: “Visual supports are any tool presented visually that supports an individual as he or she moves through the day. Visual supports
might include, but are not limited to, pictures, written words, objects within the environment, arrangement of the environment or visual
boundaries, schedules, maps, labels, organization systems, timelines, and scripts. They are used across settings to support individuals with
ASD” (National Research Council, 2001).
 Functions addressed: Escape or Attention or Tangible

 Steps of Intervention:
1. Conduct a functional behavior assessment to determine the function of behavior
2. Staff determines WHAT information should be presented visually for the student based on function of behavior (Picture Activity schedule, First/Then folder,
Reinforcer menu, etc.)
3. Staff selects one of the following forms of representation, based on student age and level of functioning:
a. objects
b. photographs
c. drawing or picture symbols
d. words/phrases

4. Present and model for the student how to use visuals specific to the function of behavior, type of activity, and replacement skill (such as use of a First
“Math, Then “Computer” board for a student with escape-based self-injury OR use of Behavior reminder cards such as “Quiet Mouth” to remind of
expectations and “I am working for…snack with Mrs. Smith” for a student with attention-based vocal disruptions)
5. Gradually fade prompting until the student is fluid in using the visuals across settings

 Examples:
 Younger elementary students or those with lower cognitive functioning: An object or picture activity schedule might be used to increase on-task behavior or redirect to
task; a First-Then board or folder could be used to represent what task(s) must be completed before reinforcer, preferred activity, or next event; a student might earn a
“puzzle piece” for each step of a task to build a full picture of a reinforcer to be earned when all pieces are given.

 For older, high-functioning, and EBD students (as appropriate): A student with attention-seeking behaviors may be given a number of “Talk Cards” to present throughout
the day or week to earn conversations with preferred staff; A student with escape-based elopement might carry a schedule checklist on a clipboard or view on an iPad to
see how much time is left until the next break, paired with a visual (on desk or wall) of a designated cool-down area that staff could direct the student to when he is
feeling overwhelmed, serving as reminder to go to the clinic, not leave the building

 Data Collection Methods:

 Frequency and/or duration data should continue to be collected on target behaviors to determine if the intervention plan including use of visual supports is effective in
reducing problem behaviors

(Haley, Heick, & Luiselli, 2010)

Differential Reinforcement

Let this image represent the

observation of a person at one
point in time
Differential Reinforcement

Let this image represent the

variety of behaviour classes
that he engages in
Differential Reinforcement

Let this image represent one of

the behaviour classes that has
raised concern.

Let’s suppose that in this

instance the behaviour occurs
too often.
Differential Reinforcement

Ideally, we would want to

regulate this behaviour so that
it is no longer viewed as a
problem.

This is where Differential

Reinforcement comes into its
own.

The aim is to target the other

behaviours to see if they can be
used to replace the problem
behaviour
Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behaviour
DRI
With this procedure we take
advantage of a behaviour that
is incompatible with the
problem behaviour.

Ideally, the behaviour selected

should occur often enough so that
there are opportunities for it to be
reinforced. Also, it helps if it takes
less effort than the problem
behaviour.
Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behaviour
DRI
Reinforce this behaviour with
the same consequence that is
maintaining the problem
behaviour

Withhold reinforcement for the

problem behaviour
Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behaviour
DRI
Here are links to show some
examples of this procedure in
action

YouTube
1 2 3 4 5

Managing disruptive behaviour

The effect of differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviors (DRI) on

pica for cigarettes in persons with intellectual disability

Improving Behavior through Differential Reinforcement: A Praise

Note System for Elementary School Students
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behaviour
DRA

In this procedure we again look

at the behaviours in the
person’s repertoire and target
an alternative to the problem
behaviour.
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behaviour
DRA

Unlike the DRI, the alternative

behaviour that is selected is not
necessarily incompatible with
the problem behaviour. As with
DRI, reinforcement is withheld
for the problem behaviour
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behaviour
DRA
Here are links to show some
examples of this procedure in
action

YouTube
1

A review of empirical support for differential reinforcement of

alternative behavior

An investigation of differential reinforcement of alternative behaviour

without extinction

Evaluating treatment challenges with differential reinforcement of alternative

behaviour
Differential Reinforcement

DRI/DRA
Can DRI and DRA procedures
be used with negative
reinforcers?

Of course they can. The two

procedures are called

Differential Negative Reinforcement of

Incompatible Behaviour (DNRI)

Differential Negative Reinforcement of

Alternative Behaviour (DNRA)
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviour
DRO
During DRI and DRA procedures
the problem behaviour is basically
ignored while another behaviour
is reinforced.

In a DRO procedure, a
contingency specifies that the
problem behaviour must NOT
occur for a specified period of
time. When this contingency is
met, the reinforcer is then
delivered.

Essentially, this means that NOT

responding is reinforced.
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviour
DRO
Fixed-Interval DRO

• Determine the size of the

interval you are working with
• Start the clock
• Deliver the reinforcer at the
end of the interval if the
problem behaviour did not
occur during the interval
• Reset the clock if the
problem behaviour occurs
during the interval
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviour
DRO
Variable-Interval DRO

• Determine in advance the

variable intervals you are
working with
• Start the clock
• Deliver the reinforcer at the
end of each interval if the
problem behaviour did not
occur during that interval
• Reset the clock if the
problem behaviour occurs
during the interval
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviour
DRO
Fixed-momentary DRO
Variable-momentary DRO

• Determine the intervals in

advance as in Fixed- and Variable-
Interval DRO
• Start the clock
• Deliver the reinforcer at the end
of each interval if the problem
behaviour did not occur AT THE
END of interval. May be an issue if
behaviour occurred during
interval; switch to Interval DRO.
• Reset the clock if the problem
behaviour occurs AT THE END of
interval
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviour
DRO
Interval DRO
or
Momentary DRO?

• Use Interval DRO to initially

suppress behaviour
• Use Moment DRO to
maintain behaviour that has
been suppressed
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviour
DRO
Here are links to show some
examples of this procedure in
action

YouTube
1 2 3 4 5

A COMPARISON OF TWO PROCEDURES FOR PROGRAMMING THE

DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF OTHER BEHAVIORS

THE EFFECT OF RULES ON DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF OTHER

BEHAVIOR

THERAPIST- AND SELF-MONITORED DRO CONTINGENCIES AS A

TREATMENT FOR THE SELF-INJURIOUS SKIN PICKING OF A YOUNG MAN
WITH ASPERGER SYNDROME
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Behaviour
DRL

It may not be appropriate to

eliminate a behaviour completely.
Instead, one might decide to limit
the overall rate at which it occurs.
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Behaviour
DRL
Here are links to show some
examples of this procedure in
action

YouTube
1 2 3 4

USING DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF LOW RATES TO REDUCE

CHILDREN'S REQUESTS FOR TEACHER ATTENTION

DECREASING CLASSROOM MISBEHAVIOR THROUGH THE USE OF DRL

SCHEDULES of REINFORCEMENT

DIFFERENTIALLY REINFORCING LOW RATES OF MISBEHAVIOR WITH NORMAL

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN
 Functional
Communication Training
(FCT)
Who uses
Functional Communication Training?

• Children and youth with

ASD, regardless of cognitive
level and/or expressive
communicative abilities.

• There is evidence to
support FCT as an effective
intervention for learners at
the early childhood and
elementary levels, but it is
reasonable to assume that
it would be effective for
older learners, as well.
 Definition of Functional
Communication Training
• FCT is a standardized practice to teach
appropriate and effective communicative
behaviors or skills to replace inappropriate
behaviors or subtle communicative acts.
• It teaches learners with ASD to use more
appropriate replacement behaviors rather then
engaging in behaviors that interfere with their
learning and development.
 Target Skills Addressed
• FCT provides skills that help youth with ASD effectively
communicate with others in a variety of situations and settings.

• FCT is used to decrease the incidence of target behaviors and

to replace indirect communicative forms (e.g., leading an adult
by the hand to a desired item) with more direct communicative
forms (e.g., pointing).
 Steps for Implementation
Step 1: Identify behaviors and triggers for these
behaviors, and the function/purpose of
these behaviors.
Step 2: Provide a communicative response to
the trigger which replaces the undesired
behavior.
Step 3: Support the student in using
communicative response in the context of
naturally occurring opportunities.
Step 4: Fade cues
The Key to Effective Functional
Communication Training
• Perform a comprehensive FBA first.
• Make sure the replacement
behavior matches the function of
the interfering behavior.
• Use of appropriate prompting and
shaping procedures to teach the
replacement behavior.
• 1 Extinction
• 2 Extinction
• The failure of a response to product a reinforcer causes the
response to decrease until the organism no longer emits the
response.
• When Reinforcers are no longer provided, the behavior stops
 Diagram of Extinction EO
• Deprived of water for a long period of time and person has history of
reinforcement for getting water when turning the “C” tap
• SD
• Tap on faucet marked with blue dot or letter “C”
• Response
• Turn tap with blue dot or “C”
• SR+
• Cold water withheld
• Turning tap marked with blue dot or “C” occurs less often in the future
• Let’s assume the tap is broken or the water has been turned off to the
tap.
 Properties Provides zero
probability of reinforcement
• Effectiveness is dependent primarily on identification of
reinforcing consequences and consistent application of the
procedure
• Extinction does not require the application of aversive stimuli to
decrease behavior.
• Extinction does not prevent occurrences of a problem behavior.
• May increase them for a time.
• The environment is changed so that the problem behavior will
no longer produce the maintaining consequences.
 Forms of Extinction Procedural
forms Functional forms
• Involve “ignoring” the problem behavior.
• Often are ineffective
• When matched to the behavioral function, the intervention is
usually effective.
• Functional forms
• Involve withholding maintaining reinforcers.
 Misuses of the Term
“Extinction
• 1) Using extinction to refer to any
• decrease in behavior
• 2) Confusing forgetting and extinction
• 3) Confusing response blocking and
• sensory extinction
• 4) Confusing non-contingent reinforcement and
• extinction
 Using Extinction to Refer to
any Behavior Decrease
• Some use the term extinction when referring to any decrease
response performance, regardless of what produced the
behavior change.
• Labeling any reduction in behavior that reaches a zero rate of
occurrence as extinction is a common misuse of the term.
 Confusing Forgetting and
Extinction
• In forgetting, a behavior is weakened by the passage of time
during which the individual does not have an opportunity to emit
the behavior.
• In extinction, behavior is weakened because it does not
produce reinforcement.
 Confusing Response Blocking
and Extinction
• Response blocking is not an extinction procedure
• Response blocking prevents the occurrence of the target
behavior
• With all extinction procedures the individual can emit the
problem behavior.
 Confusing Non-contingent
Reinforcement and Extinction
• Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) does not withhold the
reinforcers that maintain the problem behavior.
• Extinction diminishes behavior by changing consequence
stimuli; NCR diminishes behavior by changing antecedent
stimuli
 Extinction Procedures
• Extinction of Behavior Maintained by Positive Reinforcement
• Behaviors maintained by positive reinforcement are placed on
extinction when those behaviors do not produce the reinforcer.
 Extinction Procedures
• Extinction of Behavior Maintained by Negative Reinforcement
• Behaviors maintained by negative reinforcement are place on
extinction (escape extinction) when those behaviors do not
produce a removal of the aversive stimulus
• The individual cannot escape from the aversive situation.
 Extinction Effects
• Extinction effects have not been documented clearly in applied
settings.
• Practitioners should view all of the following comments on the
extinction effects tentatively when the relate to behavioral
interventions or applied research.
 Extinction Effects Gradual
Decrease in Frequency and
Amplitude
• Extinction produces a gradual reduction in behavior
• However, when reinforcement is removed abruptly, numerous
unreinforced responses can follow
 Extinction Effects Gradual
Decrease in Frequency and
Amplitude
• Often difficult for teachers and parents to apply because of the
initial increase in frequency and magnitude and the gradual
decrease in behavior.
 Extinction Effects Extinction
Burst
• An immediate increase in the frequency of the response after
the removal of the positive, negative, or automatic
reinforcement.
• “an increase in responding during any of the first three
treatment sessions above that observed during all of the last
five baseline sessions or all of baseline.
 Spontaneous Recovery
• The behavior that diminished during the extinction process
recurs even though the behavior does not produce
reinforcement
• Short-lived and limited if the extinction procedure remains in
effect.
 When Not to Use Extinction
• Imitation
• Extinction can be inappropriate if the behavior placed on
extinction are likely to be imitated by others.
• Extreme Behaviors
• Some behaviors are so harmful to self or others or so
destructive to property that they must be controlled with the
most rapid and humane procedure available.
• Extinction as a singular intervention is not recommended in
such situations.
 Conclusions Is a very effective
technique
• Can be used within a variety of contexts
• Can be used for a variety of behaviors