MEASUREMENT OF BASIC PROPERTIES

Bulk Density

The bulk density 𝜌 can be measured either in the field or in the laboratory and consists simply
of determining the mass/weight of a known volume of soil.

Laboratory Method

To determine the unit weight (or density) in the laboratory, an undisturbed sample of the
material is needed. An undisturbed sample means one taken from the ground in such a way
that it retains its in situ (i.e., in-place) characteristics. Undisturbed samples are possible with
clay but not with sand or gravel.

Procedure

(a) The sample is trimmed to have known dimensions so that its volume can be calculated.
(b) The sample is weighed.
(c) The ratio of weight to volume gives the unit weight.

Field Methods

The simplest method in the field is to use a sampling device or a “core cutter” to obtain directly
a sample of known dimensions. This is then weighed to obtain the unit weight. Other, less
direct methods can be used when sampling is not possible or convenient. Neat holes with a
regular shape can be excavated, their volume measured, and the soil excavated retained and
weighed. The ratio of weight to volume gives the unit weight.

Water Content

This is normally determined by weighing a soil sample before and after it has been dried in an
oven at a temperature between 105 and 110 °C. Normal practice is to leave the soil sample
in the oven overnight

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊1

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊2

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊3

1
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊2 − 𝑊3

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠) = 𝑊3 − 𝑊1

(𝑊2 − 𝑊3 )
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤 = ⁄(𝑊 − 𝑊 )
3 1

Specific Gravity

A special container known as a pycnometer (or specific gravity bottle) is used. Its special
feature is that its volume can be determined to a high degree of accuracy. The test, illustrated
in Figure 1, involves the following steps:

Figure 1: Procedure for determining the specific gravity of soil particles.

a. The empty pycnometer is weighed (𝑊1 ).

b. A sample of the soil being investigated is placed in the bottle and the bottle is weighed
(𝑊2 ).
c. The bottle (with the soil still in it) is filled with water and weighed (𝑊3 ).
d. The pycnometer is filled with water and weighed (𝑊4 ).
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑊2 − 𝑊1
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊4 − 𝑊1
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑊3 − 𝑊2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = (𝑊4 − 𝑊1 ) − (𝑊3 − 𝑊2 )
(𝑊2 − 𝑊1 )
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 =
(𝑊4 − 𝑊1 ) − (𝑊3 − 𝑊2 )
2
Care is needed when filling the bottle with both soil and water to ensure that no air is trapped
within the soil particles. A vacuum extraction procedure is used to ensure that any trapped air
is removed. The measurements are influenced by temperature and corrections must be made
if the test is not carried out at a known controlled temperature

3
 BASIC INDEX TESTS, SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION

GENERAL

The properties of soils measured in soil mechanics can be divided into two broad groups:

i. Properties that give a general picture of the soil and its expected characteristics but
which are not used directly in analytical design procedures. These are valuable in
providing an indication of likely engineering properties of the soil.
ii. Properties that are used directly for design purposes (mechanical). These are primarily
parameters governing the strength, compressibility, and permeability of the soil.
In this section, further properties belonging to the first group are described.
For engineering purposes soils are divided into two main categories with two
subgroups in each category;
i. Coarse-grained soils consist of gravel and/or sand and are commonly
referred to also as granular materials or no cohesive soils.
ii. Fine-grained soils consist of silt and/or clay and are often referred to also as
cohesive soils.

Gravel and Sand

These consist of rock fragments of various sizes and shapes. Gravel particles usually consist
of rock fragments but may occasionally consist of single minerals. Sand particles normally
consist of single minerals, frequently quartz. In some cases, there may be only one size of
particle present, in which case the material is described as “uniform.” In other cases, a whole
range of particle sizes from boulders down to fine sand may be present and the material is
described as well graded.

Figure 2: Principal soil groups and their particle size limits.

4
 Clay

Clay consists of very small particles and possesses the properties of cohesion and plasticity,
which are not found in sands or gravels. Cohesion refers simply to the fact that the material
sticks together, while plasticity is the property that allows the material to be deformed without
volume change or rebound and without cracking or crumbling.

Silt

This is an intermediate material lying between clay and fine sands. Silts are less plastic than
clays (strictly speaking, true silts hardly possess the property of plasticity at all) and more
permeable and display the distinctive properties of “quick” behaviour and dilatancy, which are
not found in clays. Quick behaviour refers to the tendency of silt to liquify when shaken or
vibrated, and dilatancy refers to its tendency to undergo volume increase when deformed.

Particle Size Analysis

The range of particles sizes encountered in soils is very wide: from around 20 mm down to
colloidal size of some clays of less than 0.001 mm. Although natural soils are mixtures of
various-sized particles, it is common to find predominance occurring within relatively narrow
band sizes. When the width of this size band is very narrow the soil will be termed as poorly-
graded, if it is wide, the soil is said to be well graded. A number of engineering properties, e.g.,
permeability, frost susceptibility, compressibility, are related directly or indirectly to particle-
size characteristics.

The particle size analysis of soil is carried out by determining the weight percentages falling
within various bands of sizes represented by divisions in Figure 2. In the case of coarse soils,
from which fine-grained particles have been removed or were absent, the usual process is
sieve analysis. A representative sample of the soil is split systematically down to a convenient
sub sample size and then air-dried dried. The sample is then passed through a nest of
standard test sieves arranged in descending order of mesh size. Following agitation of first
the whole nest and then individual sieves, the weight of soils retained on each sieve is
determined and the cumulative percentage of the sub-sample weight passing each sieve
calculated. From these figures, the particle size-distribution for the soil is plotted as a semi-
logarithmic curve (Figure 3) known as grading curve. The finest sieve that can conveniently
be manufactured and used in practice happens to correspond to the particle size boundary
between fine sand and silt (0.06 mm).

5
 Figure 3: Grading curve

Where the soil sample contains fine-grained particles, a wet sieving procedure is first carried
out to remove these and then the combined clay/silt fraction percentage determined. A
suitably-sized sub sample is first oven dried and then sieved to separate the coarsest particles
(>20 mm). The sample is then immersed in water containing a dispersing agent (sodium
hexametaphosphate: a 2 g/lite solution) and allowed to stand before being washed through a
63 µm mesh sieve. The retained fraction is again oven dried and passed through a nest of
sieves. After weighing the fractions retained on each sieve and calculating the cumulative
percentages passing each sieve, the grading curve is drawn. The combined clay/silt fraction
is determined from weight difference and expressed as a percentage of the total sub-sample
weight. The coarsest fraction (>20 mm) can also be sieved and results used to complete the
grading curve.

A further subdivison of particle size distribution in the fine-grained fraction is not possible by
sieving method. A small sub-sample of soil is first treated with dispersing agent and then
washed through a 63 µm sieve. The soil/water suspension is then made upto 500 ml, agitated
vigorously for a short while and then allowed to settle.

The procedure is based on Stoke’s law which states that the velocity at which a spherical
particle will sink due to gravity in a suspension is given by:

𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤 2
𝑉= 𝐷
18𝜂

6
Where

𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑐𝑚/𝑠)

𝜌𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝜂 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑔. 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑐𝑚2 )

𝐷 = 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑐𝑚)

The diameter of those particles that will have settled a given distance in a given time (t) may
be obtained by rearranging the Stokes law general equation.

18𝜂𝑉 18𝜂 𝐿
𝐷=√ =√
𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤 𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤 𝑡

18𝜂 𝐿
𝜌𝑠 = 𝐺𝑠 𝜌𝑤 , 𝐷 = √(𝐺 −1)𝜌 𝑡
𝑠 𝑤

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿
Where, 𝑉 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝑡

The procedure using a hydrometer consists of measuring the suspension density at a depth
of 100 mm at a series of elapsed time intervals. The percentage finer values corresponding to
particular diameters (i.e., particle sizes) are obtained from the density readings and thus
grading curves for the fine-grained fraction may be drawn. An alternative method of obtaining
suspension density values consists of drawing off small quantity from the prescribed depth
using a special pipette.

The sedimentation method is not particularly accurate in an absolute sense, since errors result
from a number of factors: such as the flaky nature of fine-grained particles, incomplete
dispersion, variations in viscosity due to temperature variations. However, the equivalent
spherical diameter distribution obtained in this manner provides a sufficiently useful guide for
engineering purposes.

Grading Characteristics

Soils normally consist of a range of particle sizes and do not necessarily fall into one of the
size categories listed in Figure 2. To portray the particle size composition of a soil, a graph

7
termed a particle size distribution curve (or grading curve) is used, as illustrated in Figure 4.
Some soils contain particles ranging from coarse gravel through sand and silt to clay. These
materials are termed well graded. Other soils are made up of particles that are nearly all the
same size. These are termed uniformly graded or poorly graded. A third category, not
commonly found, may be made up of a range of particle sizes from which a particular size
range is missing. These are termed gap graded, though they may also be called poorly
graded. Examples of the three types are given in Figure 4. Note that the gap-graded material
contains no particle sizes over the horizontal section of the graph, that is, between about 0.03
and 0.3 mm.

Figure 4: Particle size distribution (or grading) curves.

A further qualitative analysis of grading curves may be carried out using certain geometric
values known as grading characteristics. First of all, three points are located on the grading
curve to give the following characteristic sizes (Figure 5).

8
 Figure 5: Grading characteristics

𝑑10 = Maximum size of the smallest 10 per cent of the sample

𝑑30 = Maximum size of the smallest 30 per cent of the sample

𝑑60 = Maximum size of the smallest 60 per cent of the sample

From these characteristic sizes, the following grading characteristics are defined.

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝑑10

𝑑60
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐶𝑢 =
𝑑10

(𝑑30 )2
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐶𝑔 =
𝑑60 × 𝑑10

Both 𝐶𝑢 and 𝐶𝑔 will be unity for a single-sized soil, while 𝐶𝑢 < 3 indicates uniform grading and
𝐶𝑢 > 5 a well-graded soil. Most well-graded soils will have grading curves that are mainly flat
or slightly concave, giving values of 𝐶𝑔 between o.5 and 2.0. One useful application is an
approximation of the coefficient of permeability, which was suggested by Hazen.
9
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑘) = 𝐶𝑘 (𝑑10 )2 𝑚/𝑠

Where 𝐶𝑘 =a coefficient varying between 0.01 and 0.015.

Worked Examples

Example 1

The results of a dry-sieving test are given below: plot the particle-size distribution curve and
give classification of the soil.

Sieve size (mm or µm) 3.35 2.00 1.18 600 425 300 212 150 63
Mass retained 0 2.5 12.5 57.7 62.0 34.2 18.7 12.7 13.1

The quantity passing the 63 µm sieve and collected in the pan was 3.9 g, and the original
weighed quantity was 217.2 g.

The retained masses are first expressed as percentage of the total mass and the percentage
passing each sieve obtained by successive subtraction. The complete set of results is
tabulated below:

Sieve Mass % %
size retained retained passing
(g)
mm 3.35 0 0 100
2.0 2.6 1.2 98.8
1.18 12.5 5.7 93.1

µm 600 57.7 26.6 66.5

425 62.0 28.6 37.9
300 34.2 15.7 22.2
212 18.7 8.6 13.6
150 12.7 5.8 7.8
63 13.1 6.0 1.8
Pan 3.9 1.8
Total 217.4 g 100.0%

The plot of the particle size distribution curve is shown below:

10
An inspection of the curves shows the following approximate proportions:

Coarse sand – 33%

Medium sand-54%

Fine sand -13%

The soil may therefore be classified as well-graded medium coarse SAND.

Classification of Fine Soils

In the case of fine (i.e., cohesive) soils, it is shape rather than size of particles that has
greater influence on engineering properties. The combinations of very flaky particles and
circumstances which may bring about changes in water content results in material (soil)
having properties which are inherently variable. For example, the shear strength of
cohesive soils will vary markedly with changes in water content. Also, soils with flaky
particles behave as plastic material: an increase in applied stress usually brings about an
irrecoverable deformation, while the volume remains constant or is reduced and without
any signs of cracking or disruption.

11
Since the plasticity of fine soils has an important effect on such engineering properties as
shear strength and compressibility, plastic consistency is used as a basis for their
classification. The distinctive property of clay is plasticity, and hence some form of test that
measures or evaluates this property is a useful indicator of the nature of the clay. The
consistency of a soil is its physical state characteristic at a given water content. Four
consistency states for cohesive soils may be defined: Solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid.
The change in volume of a saturated cohesive soil is approximately proportional to a
change in water content; general relationship shown in Figure 6.

The transition from one state to the next is gradual; however, it is convenient to define
arbitrary limits corresponding to change over moisture content:

𝑊𝐿 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡: the water content at which the soil ceases to be liquid and becomes
plastic.

𝑤𝑃 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡: the water content at which the soil ceases to be plastic and
becomes as semi-plastic solid.

𝑤𝑆 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡: the water content at which drying -shrinkage at constant stress
ceases.

Figure 6: Consistency relationships

12
The two most important of these are the liquid and plastic limits, which represent
respectively the upper and lower bounds of the plastic state; the range of the plastic state
is given by their difference and is termed the 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐼𝑝 ).

𝐼𝑝 = 𝑤𝐿 − 𝑤𝑃

The relationship between the plasticity index and the liquid limit is used in the British Soil
Classification System to establish the sub-groups of the fine soil; (Figure 7) shows the
plasticity chart used for this purpose. The A-line provides an arbitrary division between
silts and clays, and vertical divisions (of percentage liquid limit) define five degrees of
plasticity.

Low plasticity: 𝑤𝐿 < 35%

Intermediate plasticity: 𝑤𝐿 = 35% − 50%

High plasticity: 𝑤𝐿 = 50% − 70%

Very high plasticity: 𝑤𝐿 = 70% − 90%

Extremely high plasticity: 𝑤𝐿 > 90%

13
 Figure 7: Plasticity chart for the classification of fine soils.

Table 1: Sub-group symbols in the British Soil Classification system

Primary letter Secondary letter

W= well graded

G=Gravel P=poorly graded

Coarse-grained soils
S= SAND Pu=uniform

Pg=gap graded

L=low plasticity

F=FINES (undifferentiated) I=intermediate plasticity

Fine-grained soils M=SILT H=High plasticity

C=CLAY V=very high plasticity

E= Extremely high plasticity

Organic soils Pt =PEAT O = Organic

14
A given soil may be located in its correct sub-group zone by plotting a point, having coordinates
given by the soil’s plasticity index and liquid limit. An explanation of the sub-group symbols in
Table 1.

The relationship between the soils natural water content and its consistency limits, i.e. its
natural in-situ consistency, is given by the 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝐼𝐿 :

𝑤 − 𝑤𝑝
𝐼𝐿 =
𝐼𝑃

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤 = 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡

Clearly from Figure 7, the significant values of LI are:

𝐼𝐿 < 0: 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒.

0 < 𝐼𝐿 < 1: 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝐼𝐿 > 1: 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒

The consistency limits represent the plasticity characteristics of the soil a whole. Plasticity,
however, is mainly determined by the amount and nature of the clay mineral present as
different clay minerals possess different degrees of flakiness. Also, even ‘clays’ may only
comprise 40-50% clay minerals. The degree of plasticity of the clay fraction itself is termed the
activity of the soil:

𝐼𝑃
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
% 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (< 2 µ𝑚)

Determination of Atterberg Limits

The three consistency limits (𝑤𝐿 , 𝑤𝑃 , 𝑤𝑆 ) are determined by arbitrary test routines in the
laboratory.

i. Liquid Limit (𝑤𝐿 )

Tests-Cone penetrometer and Casagrande cup method

Cone Penetrometer

15
The apparatus (Figure 8) consists basically of stainless-steel cone 35 mm long with an apex
angle of 30° and having a mass of 80 g. The cone is mounted on a stand which will allow it to
be dropped and then held in position while its vertical movement is measured. The soil is first
dried sufficiently for it to be broken up by a mortar and pestle, with care being taken not to
break the individual particles. The soil is then sieved and only the material passing a 425 µm
mesh sieve taken for testing. This is then thoroughly mixed with distilled water into a smooth
thick paste, and stored in an air tight container for 24 hr to allow full penetration of the water.

Figure 8: Cone penetrometer for liquid limit

At the time of testing, the soil is remixed for 10 min and a portion of it placed in the brass cup.
Care must be taken not to entrap air bubbles and then the surface is struck off level with the
top of the cup. After placing the cup on the base of the stand, the cone is lowered so that it
just touches and marks the surface of the soil paste; the dial gauge is then set and the reading
noted. The cone is released to penetrate the soil paste for exactly 5 s and relocked in its new
position; a second dial gauge reading is now taken. The difference between the first and
second dial readings gives the amount of cone penetration (mm). The penetration procedure
is repeated several times on the same paste mix and an average penetration obtained, after
which a small portion of the soil is taken and its water content determined. The whole of the
penetration procedure is then repeated with paste mixes having different water contents, five
or six times in all.

16
Graph is drawn of cone penetration/water content (Figure 9) and the liquid limit of the soil
taken as the water content corresponding to a penetration of 20 mm.

Figure 9: Graph of determination of Liquid limit.

Considering liquid limit curves of two different soils as shown in Figure 10; we can observe
that Soil 1 would reach at liquid like state at water content LL1 Soil 2 at water content LL2.
Clearly water content LL1 is higher than LL2.

We can therefore say that soil 2 loses its shear strength and becomes liquid like at lower water
content than soil 1 does.

Figure 10: Liquid limit curves of two different soils.

17
Casagrande cup method

For the determination of liquid limit by this method, an apparatus called the casagrande
apparatus (Figure 11) is used. It consists of brass cup which is connected so that it is in the
inclined position when resting on the rubber base. Brass cup when rotated by its handle lifts
to the height of 1cm and drops freely on rubber base.

The test procedure is as follows:

1. The soil is thoroughly mixed with distilled water to form a uniform paste.
2. A portion of this soil is then placed in the cup of the apparatus and levelled with a
spatula.
3. A groove is formed in the soil using a tool of special shape and dimensions. This
divides the soil into two halves separated by a gap of 2 mm.
4. The handle of the device is then turned; each rotation raises the cup by 1cm and drops
it. The effect of repeated drops (or blows) is to make the two halves of the soil flow
toward each other and gradually close the gap separating them.
5. The number of blows is recorded when the gap closes over the specified distance of
13 mm, a sample of the soil is taken, and its water content is measured.

Figure 11: Casagrande cup apparatus

18
 Figure 12: Liquid limit apparatus and plot of test results.

The LL is defined as the water content at which the gap closes over a distance of 13mm
with 25 blows. It is not practical to adjust the water content to give this exact result, so a
series of tests is carried out over a range of water contents on each side of the LL. Most
standards require that there be at least two points both above and below the LL. A graph
of number of blows versus water content is then plotted and the water content at 25 blows
read from it (Figure 12). The LL is this water content in percent rounded to the nearest
whole number.

ii. Plastic Limit

Plasticity in case of soil refers to the property of soil to get deformed without cracking or
fracturing under the action of external force and remain deformed after the removal of that
force. The plastic limit (PL) is defined as the water content at which a thread of the soil
can be rolled to a diameter of 3 mm but no smaller. Rolling to a smaller diameter causes
the thread to crumble because of lack of plasticity. At higher water contents the thread
can be rolled to a smaller diameter, and at lower water contents it will crumble before
reaching 3 mm. The procedure for the test is as follows:

1. The soil is prepared with a water content judged to be slightly wetter than the plastic
limit.

19
 2. A small portion of this soil mass is taken to form a ball and rolled on a glass plate
using hand or finger pressure to form a thread with a uniform diameter throughout
its length. The thread shall be further deformed on each stroke so that its diameter
reaches 3 mm taking no more than 2 min. The reference of a metallic rod is taken
for the diameter comparison of the thread (Figure 13).
3. If the diameter of the thread becomes smaller than 3 mm, without any crack
formation, it shows that soil is in plastic state and its water content is higher than
the plastic limit.
4. The thread is gathered up and reformed into a ball and rolled again into a thread.
Each time it is rolled it will lose moisture, so that eventually it will crumble at 3 mm.
When this happens, it means that soil has reached its plastic limit. The soil pieces
are collected and water content is determined.
5. The whole procedure is repeated two more times taking the fresh soil sample each
time.
6. The average of the plastic limit water contents is considered as plastic limit of that
soil.

Figure 13: Illustration of PL test

Linear Shrinkage Test

For soils with very small clay content the liquid and plastic limits tests may not produce reliable
results. An approximation of the plasticity index may be obtained in such cases by measuring
the linear shrinkage and using the following expression:

𝐼𝑃 = 2.13 × 𝐿𝑆

The soil is prepared as for the liquid limit test and a 150 g specimen taken for the linear
shrinkage test; this is then thoroughly remixed with distilled water to form a smooth and
homogenous paste at approximately the liquid limit of the soil (although the exact water
content is not critical). Th soil/water paste is placed into a brass mould (Figure 14), taking care
not to entrap air, and he surface struck off level. The soil is air-dried at 60-65°C until it has

20
shrunk clear of the mould and then placed in an oven at 105-110 °C to complete the drying.
After cooling, the length of the sample is measured and the liner shrinkage obtained as follows:

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝐿𝑆 = (1 − ) 100
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Figure 14: Linear shrinkage mould.

iii. Determination of Shrinkage Limit

The shrinkage limit test in not much used, since the 𝑤𝑆 is not directly in soil classification, as
are the 𝑤𝑃 and 𝑤𝐿 .The 𝑤𝑆 can, however, provide some indication of the particulate structure
of the soil, since a dispersed structure will generally produce a low 𝑤𝑆 and a flocculated
structure a high 𝑤𝑆 .

A cylindrical specimen of firm plastic soil is taken for the test: usually 76 mm long and 38 mm
diameter. At frequent intervals during slow-drying process, measurements of mass and
volume are taken. The volume determination is often done using a mercury displacement
vessel (Figure 15): the specimen being immersed in a known volume of mercury and the
change in level, measured by micrometre gauge, used to compute the change in volume. A
volume /water content graph is plotted and the shrinkage limit obtained (Figure 6)

21
 Figure 15: Shrinkage limit test

Compaction

Compaction is defined as the process of increasing the density of a material by mechanical

means with a consequent reduction of air-voids volume, but with no change in the volume of
water. This is usually effected by mechanical means, such as rolling, tamping, etc. In the
construction of road bases, runways, earth dams and embankments, the soil is placed in
layers of specified thickness, each layer being compacted to a specification relating to the type
of plant in use.

Objectives of compaction

i. To reduce the void ratio and thus the permeability of the soil (this also has the effect
of controlling the water absorption and subsequent changes in water content)
ii. To increase the shear strength and therefore the bearing capacity of the soil.
iii. To make the soil less susceptible to subsequent volume changes and therefore reduce
the tendency to settlement under load or under the influence of vibration.

Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Compaction Process

i. Nature and type of soil (i.e., sand or clay; uniform or well graded; plastic or non-
plastic)
ii. The water content at the time of placing
iii. The maximum possible state of compaction attainable for the soil.
iv. The maximum amount of compaction attainable under field conditions
22
 v. The type of compaction plant being used.

The state of compaction of a soil is conveniently measured using the dry density values of
which are related to the water content. As the water is added to a dry soil, films of adsorbed
water form around the particles. As the adsorbed water films increase in thickness, the
particles become lubricated and are able to pack more closely together, thus the density
increases. At some certain point, however, the pore water pressure in adsorbed films tends to
push the particles apart and so with further increases in water content, the density decreases.
The maximum dry density therefore occurs at an optimum water content, 𝑤𝑜𝑝𝑡 .

Compaction Test – (Standard Compaction Standard)

The method consists essentially of placing the soil in the appropriate mould in either three or
five layers, each of which is subject to a specified amount of compactive effort. After
compacting the final layer, the bulk density of the soil contained in the mould is determined
and a sample of soil taken to find its water content. The soil is then removed from the mould,
remixed with an additional amount of water and the test procedure repeated. A total of at least
five tests should be carried out for a given soil. Initially, the soil is air-dried and particles larger
than 20 mm removed.

From the values of bulk density and water content obtained, the dry density is calculated: 𝝆𝒅 =
𝝆/(𝟏 + 𝒎) and a graph of dry density/water content plotted (Figure 16). From the curve the
maximum dry density for that amount of compactive effort is determined. Also reported is the
water content value corresponding to the maximum dry density, termed the optimum water
content.

23
Figure 16: graph of dry density/water content

24