06-02-2024

Pre Processing of Remote Sensing Data

1. De-Quantization and conversation to (i) Radiance, (ii) Reflectance

2. Atmospheric Correction
3. Radiometric Correction
4. Topographic Correction
5. Geometric Correction

Terrain Energy-Matter Interactions

We begin with the simple radiation budget equation, which

states that the total amount of radiant flux in specific
wavelengths (l) incident to the terrain ( ) must be
accounted for by evaluating the amount of radiant flux
reflected from the surface ( ), the amount of radiant
flux absorbed by the surface ( ), and the amount of
radiant flux transmitted through the surface ( ):

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Reflectance is the process whereby radiation “bounces off” an object

like a cloud or the terrain. Actually, the process is more complicated,
involving re-radiation of photons in unison by atoms or molecules in
a layer one-half wavelength deep.
There are various types of reflecting surfaces:

• When specular reflection occurs, the surface from which the radiation is
reflected is essentially smooth (i.e. the average surface profile is several times
smaller than the wavelength of radiation striking the surface). Snell’s Law.

• If the surface is rough, the reflected rays go in many directions, depending on the
orientation of the smaller reflecting surfaces. This diffuse reflection does not yield
a mirror image, but instead produces diffused radiation. White paper, white
powders and other materials reflect visible light in this diffuse manner.

• If the surface is so rough that there are no individual reflecting surfaces, then
scattering may occur. Lambert defined a perfectly diffuse surface; hence the
commonly designated Lambertian surface is one for which the radiant flux
leaving the surface is constant for any angle of reflectance to the surface normal.

Typical spectral
reflectance curves
for urban–suburban
phenomena in the
region 0.4 – 0.9 mm.

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Angular Information

There is always an angle of incidence associated with the

incoming energy that illuminates the terrain and an angle
of exitance from the terrain to the sensor system. This
bidirectional nature of remote sensing data collection is
known to influence the spectral and polarization
characteristics of the at-sensor radiance, L, recorded by
the remote sensing system.

Reflectance

EMR – Atmosphere interaction

Once electromagnetic radiation is generated, it is propagated

through the earth's atmosphere almost at the speed of light in a
vacuum.

• Unlike a vacuum in which nothing happens, however, the

atmosphere may affect not only the speed of radiation but also its
wavelength, intensity, spectral distribution, and/or direction.

Scattering

Absorption

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Scattering

Scatter differs from reflection in that the direction associated with

scattering is unpredictable,

whereas the direction of reflection is predictable. There are

essentially three types of scattering:

• Rayleigh,

• Mie, and

• Non-selective.

Atmospheric Layers
and Constituents

Major subdivisions of the

atmosphere and the types of
molecules and aerosols found
in each layer.

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Rayleigh Scattering

Rayleigh scattering occurs when the diameter of the matter (usually air
molecules) are many times smaller than the wavelength of the incident
electromagnetic radiation.

All scattering is accomplished through absorption and re-emission of

radiation by atoms or molecules.

It is impossible to predict the direction in which a specific atom or molecule

will emit a photon, hence scattering.

The energy required to excite an atom is associated with short-wavelength,

high frequency radiation.

The amount of scattering is inversely related to the fourth power of the

radiation's wavelength. For example, blue light (0.4 mm) is scattered 16 times
more than near-infrared light (0.8 mm).

Rayleigh
Scattering

The intensity of
Rayleigh scattering
varies inversely with the
fourth power of the
wavelength (l-4).

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Rayleigh Scattering
• Rayleigh scattering is responsible for the blue sky. The short
violet and blue wavelengths are more efficiently scattered than
the longer orange and red wavelengths. When we look up on
cloudless day and admire the blue sky, we witness the
preferential scattering of the short wavelength sunlight.

• Rayleigh scattering is responsible for red sunsets. Since the

atmosphere is a thin shell of gravitationally bound gas
surrounding the solid Earth, sunlight must pass through a longer
slant path of air at sunset (or sunrise) than at noon. Since the
violet and blue wavelengths are scattered even more during their
now-longer path through the air than when the Sun is overhead,
what we see when we look toward the Sun is the residue - the
wavelengths of sunlight that are hardly scattered away at all,
especially the oranges and reds (Sagan, 1994).

Mie Scattering

• Mie scattering takes place when there are essentially spherical

particles present in the atmosphere with diameters approximately
equal to the wavelength of radiation being considered.

For visible light, water vapor, dust, and other particles ranging from
a few tenths of a micrometer to several micrometers in diameter are
the main scattering agents.

The amount of Mie scatter is greater than Rayleigh scatter and the
wavelengths scattered are longer.

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Non-selective Scattering

• Non-selective scattering is produced when there are particles in the

atmosphere several times the diameter of the radiation being
transmitted. This type of scattering is non-selective, i.e. all
wavelengths of light are scattered, not just blue, green, or red. Thus,
water droplets, which make up clouds and fog banks, scatter all
wavelengths of visible light equally well, causing the cloud to appear
white (a mixture of all colors of light in approximately equal
quantities produces white).

• Scattering can severely reduce the information content of remotely

sensed data to the point that the imagery looses contrast and it is
difficult to differentiate one object from another.

Effects of scattering

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Atmospheric Scattering

Type of scattering is a function of:

1) the wavelength of the

incident radiant energy, and

1) the size of the gas molecule,

dust particle, and/or water
vapor droplet encountered.

Absorption

• Absorption is the process by which radiant energy is absorbed

and converted into other forms of energy. An absorption band is a
range of wavelengths (or frequencies) in the electromagnetic
spectrum within which radiant energy is absorbed by substances
such as water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2), ozone
(O3), and nitrous oxide (N2O).

• The cumulative effect of the absorption by the various

constituents can cause the atmosphere to close down in certain
regions of the spectrum. This is bad for remote sensing because no
energy is available to be sensed.

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a) The absorption of the Sun’s incident

electromagnetic energy in the region
from 0.1 to 30 mm by various
atmospheric gases. The first four
graphs depict the absorption
characteristics of N2O, O2 and O3,
CO2, and H2O, while the final graphic
depicts the cumulative result of all
these constituents being in the
atmosphere at one time. The
atmosphere essentially “closes down”
in certain portions of the spectrum
while “atmospheric windows” exist in
other regions that transmit incident
energy effectively to the ground. It is
within these windows that remote
sensing systems must function.
b) The combined effects of
atmospheric absorption, scattering, and
reflectance reduce the amount of solar
irradiance reaching the Earth’s surface
at sea level.

Absorption of the Sun's Incident Electromagnetic Energy in the

Region from 0.1 to 30 mm by Various Atmospheric Gases

window

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Atmospheric Correction

Atmospheric Correction

The total radiance reaching the sensor is:

spectral solar irradiance

specific solar zenith angle
atmospheric transmittance at this angle
“”

diffuse sky irradiance

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Atmospheric Correction

There are several ways to atmospherically correct remotely sensed data. Some are relatively
straightforward while others are complex, being founded on physical principles and requiring a
significant amount of information to function properly. This discussion will focus on two major
types of atmospheric correction:

• Absolute atmospheric correction, and

• Relative atmospheric correction.

There are various methods that can be used to achieve absolute or relative atmospheric correction.
The following sections identify the logic, algorithms, and problems associated with each
methodology.

Single Image Normalization Using Histogram Adjustment

Output BVijk = input BVijk - bias

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Radiometric Correction Using

Empirical Line Calibration
Relative atmospheric correction may also be performed using empirical line calibration
(ELC), which forces the remote sensing image data to match in situ spectral reflectance
measurements, hopefully obtained at approximately the same time and on the same date as
the remote sensing overflight. Empirical line calibration is based on the equation:

where BVk is the digital output value for a pixel in band k, pl equals the scaled reflectance of
the materials within the remote sensor IFOV at a specific wavelength (l), Ak is a
multiplicative term affecting the BV, and Bk is an additive term. The multiplicative term is
associated primarily with atmospheric transmittance and instrumental factors, and the
additive term deals primarily with atmospheric path radiance.

In Situ Radiometric Data Collection

a) Field crew taking a spectroradiometer measurement from a calibrated

reflectance standard on the tripod. b) 8  8 m black and white calibration targets.

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Bright
Target
Paired Relationship: Band 1
Fieldspectra 48 49 Band 2
Radiance One
Remote 47 48 55 54 Band 3
Dark measurement
Bright Target
Target 48 50 54 57 40 40
Remote Measurement m = 49 55 56 40 39
Fieldspectra= 55
Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 m = 55 42 41
Wavelength, nm F = 59
m= 41
F = 48
Bright
Target Band 1
9 10 Band 2
One
Fieldspectra

Dark
Target 10 11 5 4 Band 3
Dark Target 12 10 6 5 0 0
Remote Measurement m = 11 4 6 0 4
Fieldspectra= 13
m=5 2 1
F=7
m=3
Radianceimage (e.g., Band 1) F=4

Using the above relationship, estimate the corrected radiance of a pixel

that had an initial DN value of 72

Empirical Line Calibration

a) Landsat Thematic Mapper image acquired

on February 3, 1994 was radiometrically
corrected using empirical line calibration and
spectral library beach and water in situ
spectroradiometer measurements and Landsat
TM image brightness values (BVi,j,k).

b) A pixel of pine with its original brightness

values in six bands

c) The same pixel after empirical line

calibration to scaled surface reflectance. Note
the correct chlorophyll absorption in the blue
(band 1) and red (band 3) portions of the
spectrum and the increase in near-infrared
reflectance.

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Ground Image
The data Given in the table represent the
Reflectance Reflectance
synchronously measured filed and image
Reflectance values (λ=700nm) for different
Waterbodies 0.04 0.055 landuse types. Using these values perform
0.036 0.042 empirical line Atmospheric Correction and
0.062 0.071 calculate the ground equivalent reflectance
values for following image reflectances
Bare soil 0.34 0.39
0.36 0.41
0.26 0.31 Concrete building 0.41
Vegetation 0.48 0.53
Tar Road 0.12
0.5 0.56
0.53 0.58 Laterite soil 0.52
Snow 0.86 0.9
0.94 0.95 Gain = 1.0035
0.96 0.97 Offset = 0.032

Atmospheric Correction Using ATCOR

a) Image containing substantial haze prior to atmospheric correction. b) Image after

atmospheric correction using ATCOR (Courtesy Leica Geosystems and DLR, the
German Aerospace Centre).

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Radiometric calibration

Account for sensor response

cannot assume sensor response is linear
account for non-linearities via pre-launch and/or in-orbit calibration
On-board black body (A/ATSR), stable targets (AVHRR), inter-sensor
comparisons etc.

DNout

DNin

Illumination correction due to topography

where:

LH = radiance observed for a horizontal surface

(i.e., slope-aspect corrected remote sensor data).
LT = radiance observed over sloped terrain (i.e.,
the raw remote sensor data)
0 = sun’s zenith angle
i = sun’s incidence angle in relation to the
normal on a pixel
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BRDF effects
Multi-temporal observations have varying sun/view angles
To compare images from different dates, need same view/illum.
conditions i.e. account for BRDF effects
fit BRDF model & use to normalise reflectance e.g. to nadir view/illum.
e.g. MODIS NBAR nadir BRDF-adjusted reflectance

AVHRR bands 1 & 2 uncorrected Corrected

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