1.

Electric Force and Its Applications

Definition: The electric force is the attractive or repulsive interaction between charged
objects. It is described by Coulomb's Law.

Formula:
F=k (q1.q2)/r^2

( F ) = electric force
( k ) = Coulomb's constant (( 8.99 \times 10^9 , \text{N m}^2/\text{C}^2 ))
( q_1, q_2 ) = magnitudes of the charges
( r ) = distance between the centers of the two charges
Example: If two charges of +2 µC and -3 µC are 0.5 m apart, the electric force can be
calculated using Coulomb's Law.

Applications: Electric forces are fundamental in electrostatics, capacitors, and in

understanding molecular interactions.

2. Coulomb's Law
Definition: Coulomb's Law describes the electrostatic force between two charged objects. It
states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force (( F )) between two point charges is
directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges (( q_1 ) and ( q_2 )) and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance (( r )) between them. The law can be
mathematically expressed as:

[ F = k \frac{|q_1 q_2|}{r^2} ]

Where:

( F ) = magnitude of the electrostatic force between the charges (in newtons, N)

( k ) = Coulomb's constant (( 8.99 \times 10^9 , \text{N m}^2/\text{C}^2 ))
( q_1 ) and ( q_2 ) = magnitudes of the charges (in coulombs, C)
( r ) = distance between the centers of the two charges (in meters, m)
Key Points:

1.​ The force is attractive if the charges are of opposite signs (one positive and one
negative)
2.​ repulsive if the charges are of the same sign (both positive or both negative).
3.​ Coulomb's Law applies to point charges or spherically symmetric charge
distributions.

Digram:
q1 (+) r q2 (-)
+2μC -------------------- -3μC
|<----------------->|
Distance=r
this diagram:

1.​ ( q_1 ) is a positive charge, and ( q_2 ) is a negative charge.

2.​ The distance ( r ) is the separation between the two charges.
3.​ The arrows indicate the direction of the force: attractive for opposite charges and rep
3.Conservation of Charge
Definition:
The principle of conservation of charge states that the total electric charge in an isolated
system remains constant over time. This means that charge can neither be created nor
destroyed; it can only be transferred from one part of the system to another.
Example 1. Charging by Induction
Scenario: Consider a neutral metal sphere that is brought close to a positively charged rod.
Conservation of Charge: The total charge before and after the process remains constant.
The charge has merely been redistributed.
Example 2: Charge in a Circuit
Scenario: In a simple electrical circuit with a battery and a resistor, the battery provides a
certain amount of charge.
Conservation of Charge: The total charge in the circuit remains constant. The charge is
continuously moving but is not lost or created.
Conclusion:
The conservation of charge is a fundamental principle in physics that underlies many
phenomena in electrostatics, circuit theory, and particle physics. It ensures that the total
electric charge in an isolated system remains constant, providing a basis for understanding
how charges interact and transfer in various processes.

4.Charge Quantization
Definition:
Charge quantization refers to the principle that electric charge exists in discrete units,
specifically as integer multiples of the elementary charge (( e )). The elementary charge is
the smallest unit of charge that is observed in nature, and it is approximately equal to ( 1.6
\times 10^{-19} ) coulombs.

Key Points:

1.​ Discrete Nature of Charge: Electric charge cannot take on arbitrary values; it can
only be an integer multiple of the elementary charge. For example, charges can be (
0, +e, -e, +2e, -2e, ) etc.
2.​ Elementary Charge: The elementary charge (( e )) is the charge of a single proton
or the negative of the charge of a single electron.
3.​ Implications: This quantization of charge has significant implications in various fields
of physics, including atomic physics, quantum mechanics, and particle physics.
Formula:

Q=n.e
( q ) = total charge (in coulombs, C)
( n ) = integer (can be positive, negative, or zero)
( e ) = elementary charge (( 1.6 \times 10^{-19} , C ))
5. Disk of Charge
A disk of charge refers to a circular flat surface that has a uniform distribution of electric
charge over its area. This concept is often used in electrostatics to calculate the electric field
and potential due to a charged disk.

Key Concepts
1.​ Charge Distribution:
The charge on the disk can be uniformly distributed, meaning that the charge density
is constant across the surface of the disk.
The surface charge density (σ): is defined as the charge per unit area:

σ=Q/A
Where:
( Q ) = total charge on the disk
( A ) = area of the disk (( A = \pi R^2 ) for a disk of radius ( R ))
2.​ Electric Field Due to a Charged Disk:
The electric field (( E )) at a point along the axis of the disk can be calculated using
integration. The electric field due to a uniformly charged disk at a distance ( z ) from its
center along the axis is given by:

E=σ/2E○(1-z/√Z^2+R^2)
Where:
( \epsilon_0 ) = permittivity of free space (( 8.85 \times 10^{-12} , \text{C}^2/\text{N m}^2 ))
( z ) = distance from the center of the disk along the axis
( R ) = radius of the disk

6.Ring of Charge
A ring of charge refers to a circular distribution of electric charge, where the charge is
uniformly distributed along the circumference of the ring. This concept is commonly used in
electrostatics to calculate the electric field and potential at various points in space due to the
charged ring.

Key Concepts
1.​ Charge Distribution:
The total charge ( Q ) is uniformly distributed along the ring, which can be
characterized by a linear charge density

λ = Q/L
Where:
( L ) = circumference of the ring ((2πR) for a ring of radius ( R ))
2.​ Electric Field Due to a Charged Ring:
 The electric field (( E )) at a point along the axis of the ring (perpendicular to the
plane of the ring) can be calculated using integration. The electric field at a distance (
z ) from the center of the ring along its axis is given by:

E=(kQz)/(z^2+R^2)^3/2
Where:
( k ) = Coulomb's constant (( 8.99 \times 10^9 , \text{N m}^2/\text{C}^2 ))
( z ) = distance from the center of the ring along the axis
( R ) = radius of the ring

7.Electric Field Due to Point Charges

Definition: The electric field is a region around a charged object where other charged
objects experience a force. It tells us how strong the force would be on a positive test charge
placed in that field.

Key Points:
Point Charge: A point charge is an idealized model of a charged object that has all its
charge concentrated at a single point in space.

Electric Field Formula:

E=k Q\r^2:

( E ) = electric field (in N/C)

( k ) = Coulomb's constant (( 8.99 ×10^9 , \text{N m}^2/\text{C}^2 ))
( Q ) = charge (in coulombs)
( r ) = distance from the charge (in meters)

Direction of the Electric Field:

Positive Charge: The electric field points away from the charge.
Negative Charge: The electric field points towards the charge

Summary:
The electric field tells us how a charged object affects the space around it, and it can be
calculated using a simple formula based on the charge and distance.

1. Reflection
Definition: Reflection is the bouncing back of a wave when it hits a surface that it cannot
pass through. The angle at which the wave hits the surface (angle of incidence) is equal to
the angle at which it reflects off the surface (angle of reflection).

2. Refraction
Definition: Refraction is the bending of a wave as it passes from one medium to another
due to a change in its speed. This change in speed occurs because different media have
different optical densities.

3. Diffraction
Definition: Diffraction is the bending and spreading of waves around obstacles and
openings. It occurs when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit that is comparable in size
to its wavelength

Phenomenon Definition Key Law/Formula Example

Reflection Bouncing back of ( \theta_i = \theta_r ) Seeing your image

waves from a in a mirror
surface

Refraction Bending of waves as ( n_1 \sin(\theta_1) = ​

they pass into a n_2 \sin(\theta_2) ) A straw appearing
different medium bent in water

Diffraction Bending and Depends on Light spreading out

spreading of waves wavelength and after passing
around obstacles obstacle size through a slit

Snell's Law:
: The relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction is given by Snell's Law

n₂sin(θ₂) = n₁sin(θ₁)
n_1=incident index
n_2=refracted index

θ₂=​ incident angle

θ₁=refracted angle

8.Ohm's law
the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage applied across
it, and inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor ====》(I=V/R)
 V = IR
(Voltage = Current x Resistance).
Applications of Ohm's Law:
Electrical Safety Analysis Ohm's Law helps in understanding and preventing electrical
hazards, like overloads or shorts,
Understanding Electrical Devices:Ohm's Law helps understand how different electrical
components, like resistors and light bulbs, behave in a circuit.
Circuit Design: Engineers use Ohm's Law to design circuits
Ohmic vs. Non-Ohmic:
Ohmic: Materials that follow Ohm's Law, meaning their resistance remains constant
regardless of the applied voltage.
Examples include metals and resistors under certain conditions.
Non-Ohmic: Materials where the resistance changes with voltage or other factors, resulting
in a non-linear relationship between voltage and current
Examples include semiconductors, diodes, transistors, and thermistors.
Examples of Non-Ohmic Materials:
Semiconductors: Silicon and germanium are examples of semiconductors that exhibit
non-linear V-I characteristics.
Diodes: Diodes are electronic devices that allow current to flow in only one direction, and
their behavior deviates from Ohm's Law.
Transistors: Transistors are semiconductor devices used for amplifying or switching
electronic signals, and their behavior is also non-ohmic.
Thermistors: Thermistors are temperature-sensitive resistors whose resistance changes
significantly with temperature, making them non-ohmic.
Light Bulbs: The resistance of a light bulb filament changes with temperature, leading to a
non-linear V-I characteristic.

9.Dipole in electric field:

What Is dipole?
Dipole :
*Dipole in an Electric Field*

A *dipole* consists of two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance.
The charges are typically denoted as *+q* and *-q*, and the distance between them
is *d*. The line connecting the two charges is called the *dipole axis*.

Concept of Dipole Moment:

The dipole moment (p) is a vector quantity . It is defined as the product of the charge
and the distance between the charges:
 𝐩=q·d

Where:
- *q* is the magnitude of the charge,
- *d* is the distance between the two charges.

direction of the dipole moment

negative charge towards the positive charge, along the dipole axis.

What is the behavior of dipole in electric field?

Behavior of a Dipole in an Electric Field:

When a dipole is placed in an external *uniform electric field*, the field exerts forces
on the positive and negative charges.
forces on these charges are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. This
create torque on the dipole, which tends to align the dipole moment with the electric
field.

1. Force on Dipole:
uniform electric field
The net force on a dipole placed in a uniform electric field is zero because the
forces on the positive and negative charges cancel each other out.
non-uniform
electric field can exert a net force on a dipole, causing it to move.

2. Torque on Dipole:

The torque (τ) acting on a dipole is given by the equation:

τ = p · E ·sin(θ)

Where:
- *p* is the dipole moment,
- *E* is the magnitude of the electric field,
- *θ* is the angle between the dipole moment and the electric field.

The torque causes the dipole to rotate, and it will align itself with the electric field.
maximum
when the dipole moment is perpendicular to the electric field,
minimum
(zero) torque when the dipole moment is parallel to the electric field.
Potential Energy of a Dipole in an Electric Field:
The potential energy (U) of a dipole in an external electric field is given by:

U = - 𝐩·𝐄

Where:
- *p* is the dipole moment,
- *E* is the external electric field.

minimum
dipole is aligned with the electric field,
maximum
dipole is anti-aligned (opposite) to the electric field.

Applications of Electric Dipoles:

1. Dielectric Materials in Capacitors
2. Dipole Antennas in Communication
3. Polarization of Light

10.Induced Magnetic Field

Definition :
induced magnetic field is a magnetic field that is generated due to a changing
electric field or current . This phenomenon is a key part of electromagnetism and is
described by Faraday’s Law and Maxwell’s equations.

Concept of Induced Magnetic Field:

when a current varies a magnetic field is created around it. This process is called
electromagnetic induction.
This concept shows the strong link between electricity and magnetism, where a

change in one can produce the other .

Faraday’s Law of Induction:
Faraday discovered that
1.​ a changing magnetic field induces an electric current in a nearby conductor.

This is known as Faraday’s Law.

EMF=−NΔΦB\Δt,
Where:
EMF = is the induced voltage
Φ_B= is the magnetic flux
negative sign= shows the direction of the induced EMF (Lenz’s Law)==The induced
EMF opposes the change in flux (direction of induced current resists the cause).

ΔΦB=B.A cosθ

2.​ changing electric field can induce a magnetic field.

Maxwell’s Correction and Displacement Current:

James Clerk Maxwell extended Faraday’s Law by adding that:
A changing electric field can act like a current and produce a magnetic field even in
empty space.

This is called the *displacement current*, and it’s added to *Ampere’s Law* to form
the *Maxwell-Ampère Law*:

∇⃗×B⃗ = μ○( J⃗ +ε₀dE/dt)

Where:
B⃗ = magnetic field
J⃗ = current density
∂E⃗/∂ t = change in electric field over time
-μ_0 and ϵ_0 = constants
ε₀ (Vacuum Permittivity

Real-Life Applications:

1. *Wireless Charging.

2. *MRI Machines

3. *Transformers*:

Self Induction and Mutual Induction

1. Self Induction (‫)خود القائی‬

Definition:
Self-induction is the phenomenon in which a changing current in a coil induces an
EMF (voltage) in the same coil due to its own changing magnetic field.

Explanation:
1.​ When the current in a coil changes, it creates a *changing magnetic field*.
2.​ This changing magnetic field *cuts through the same coil*, inducing a *back
EMF* (opposing voltage) that resists the change in current.
3.​ This is in accordance with *Lenz’s Law*.

Formula:

EMF = -L dI/dt
Where:
- L = self-inductance
- dI/dt = rate of change of current

Example:
When you switch off a fan, it takes a few seconds to stop. That’s because the coil
opposes the sudden change in current — this is self-induction

2. Mutual Induction (‫)باہمی القائی‬

Definition:
Mutual induction is the phenomenon in which a *changing current in one coil induces
an EMF* in *another nearby coil* due to the changing magnetic field.

Explanation:
1.​ If two coils are placed close to each other, and current in the first coil
(primary) changes
2.​ It creates a *changing magnetic field* that passes through the second coil
(secondary).
3.​ This induces a voltage (EMF) in the second coil.

Formula:

EMF = -M dI/dt
Where:
- M = mutual inductance
- dI/dt = rate of change of current in the primary coil

Example:
- This is the working principle of *transformers* — used in power supply and
electricity transmission.

Short notes
Electric current
Definition:
It is a the flow of electric charge (usually electrons) through a conductor (like a wire). It is
measured in *amperes (A)*.
Formula:
I = Q/t

Where:
- I = current (in amperes)
- Q = charge (in coulombs)
- t = time (in seconds)

Types of Electric Current:

1. *Direct Current (DC)* – Flows in one direction (e.g., battery).
2. *Alternating Current (AC)* – Changes direction periodically (e.g., home electricity).

Key Points:
1.​ Current flows from *positive to negative* terminal (conventional current).
2.​ Electrons* actually flow from *negative to positive* terminal.
3.​ It needs a *closed circuit* to flow.

Current Density
It is the amount of electric current flowing per unit area of cross-section.
Formula
J = I/A
Where:
- J = current density (A/m²)
- I = current
- A = area perpendicular to current

Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law states that the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage
across it, provided temperature remains constant.
Formula
V=I·R
Where:
- V = voltage
- I = current
- R = resistance

Total Internal Reflection

It occurs when light travels from a *denser medium to a rarer medium*, and the angle of
incidence is greater than the *critical angle*.
- The light is completely reflected back into the denser medium.
- *Applications*: Optical fibers, diamonds, prisms.

Resistance
It is the opposition offered by a material to the flow of electric current.

R = ρ· L/A

Where:
- R = resistance (Ohms, Ω)
- ρ = resistivity of material
- L = length of conductor
- A = Cross-sectional area (m²)
Resistivity
Explanation
is a property of a material that tells *how strongly it resists the flow of electric current*.
Scientific Definition:
*Resistivity (ρ)* is the resistance of a material *per unit length and unit cross-sectional area*.
Formula:
ρ = R ×A/L
Where:
- ρ = Resistivity (Ohm meter, Ω·m)
- R = Resistance (Ohms, Ω)
- A = Cross-sectional area (m²)
- L = Length of the conductor (m)

Example:
- *Copper* has low resistivity → easy flow of electricity.
- *Rubber* has high resistivity → blocks electric current.

Motional EMF
Definition
EMF induced in a conductor when it moves through a magnetic field. Is called motional EMF

Explanation
The movement of the conductor through the magnetic field causes a change in the magnetic
flux, resulting in an induced EMF.

Formula
The motional EMF (ε) is given by:

ε=B×L×v

Depend
1. Magnetic field strength (B)
2. Length of the conductor (L)
3. Velocity of the conductor (v)

Application
Motional EMF is used in:

1. Electric generators
2. Motors
3. Magnetic sensors

Halls effect
Concept:*

When *current (electrons)* flows through a conductor and a *magnetic field* is applied
*perpendicular* to the current:

- The magnetic field *pushes the electrons* (which are negative) *to one side* of the
material.
- This causes one side to become *negative*, and the opposite side to become *positive*.
So
- *Current (I)* flows left to right (due to electron flow).
- *Electrons* are pushed to the left side (–).
- *Right side* becomes positive due to electron loss (+)

In Simple Words:*
Imagine water flowing in a pipe (current). Now put a fan next to it blowing across. The water
will get pushed to one side. Same thing happens to *electrons* in a wire — the *magnetic
field pushes them to one side*, making one side negative and the other positive.

Formula:*
V_H = IB/net

Where:
- V_H = Hall Voltage
- I = Current
- B = Magnetic Field
- n = Charge carrier density
- e = Electron charge
- t = Thickness of the material
*Applications of Hall Effect:*

1. *Magnetic Sensors* – Like those in smartphones.

2. *Car Speed & ABS Sensors* – In wheels to detect speed.
3. *Measuring Current* – Non-contact current measurement.

Certainly! Let's delve into the concept of *two-surface interference* in physics, which is a
fascinating phenomenon observed when light waves reflect off two closely spaced surfaces,
leading to patterns of constructive and destructive interference.

---

What Is Two-Surface Interference?

*Two-surface interference* occurs when light reflects off two nearby surface (such as the
top and bottom of a thin film)and the reflected waves overlap. Depending on the difference in
the paths these waves travel, they can interfere constructively (amplifying the light) or
destructively (diminishing or canceling the light), creating visible patterns of bright and dark
fringes.
Real-World Examples

1. *Thin Film Interference*: This is observed in soap bubbles or oil slicks, where varying
thicknesses in the film cause different wavelengths of light to interfere, producing colorful
patterns.

2. *Newton's Rings*: When a convex lens is placed on a flat glass surface, concentric
circular interference patterns, known as Newton's rings, are formed due to the varying
thickness of the air film between the two surfaces.

Biot-Savart Law

Definition
The Biot-Savart Law relates the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire to the
current, wire geometry, and distance.

Formula
dB = (μ₀ * I * dl × r̂ ) / (4π * r²)

Explanation
The Biot-Savart Law calculates the magnetic field (dB) produced by a small element of a
current-carrying wire. It depends on:

1. Current (I)
2. Length of the element (dl)
3. Distance from the element ®

Applications
●​ Electromagnets
●​ Electric motors
●​ MRI

Polarization of electromagnetic waves

Property
1.​ Polarization is a fundamental property of electromagnetic waves that
describes the orientation of the electric field vector oscillations as they
propagate through space
2.​ Polarization is a property of transverse waves which specifies the
geometrical orientation of the oscillations
In a transverse wave, the direction of the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction
of motion of the wave
An electromagnetic wave such as light consists of a coupled oscillating electric field
and magnetic field which are always perpendicular to each other
Polarized waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in a single plane

Polarization
The process of transforming unpolarized light into polarized light is known as polarization
Types of Polarization

1.​ Linear Polarization*: Electric field vector oscillates in a single plane.

2.​ Circular Polarization*: Electric field vector rotates in a circular motion.
3.​ Elliptical Polarization*: Electric field vector oscillates in an elliptical motion.
Applications

1.​ Antennas*: Polarization is crucial for efficient transmission and reception.

2.​ Optical Communication*: Polarization is used to enhance signal quality.
3.​ Radar Technology*: Polarization helps in target detection and identification.

Polarization Sheet
A polarization sheet, also known as a polarizing filter

Function
1. *Polarizes Light*: Allows only light waves with a specific polarization orientation to pass
through.
2. *Blocks Unpolarized Light*: Absorbs or blocks light waves with other polarization
orientations.

Applications
1. *Photography
2. *Sunglasses
3. *Optical Instruments
Polarization sheets are widely used in various applications to control light polarization and
improve image quality.

Single Slit Diffraction

Definition
Single slit diffraction occurs when light passes through a narrow slit, creating an interference
pattern on a screen.

Explainition
Single slit diffraction illustrates the wave-like behavior of light, showcasing its ability to bend
around obstacles and create interference patterns.

Characteristics
1. *Central Maximum*: Brightest region at the center of the pattern.
2. *Minima*: Dark regions on either side of the central maximum.
3. *Secondary Maxima*: Weaker bright regions beyond the minima.

Applications
1. *Optics*: Understanding single slit diffraction is crucial in designing optical instruments.
2. *Physics*: Demonstrates wave nature of light.

Double Slit Interference

Definition
Double slit interference occurs when light passes through two parallel slits, creating an
interference pattern on a screen.

Characteristics
1. *Interference Pattern*: Alternating bright and dark bands.
2. *Constructive Interference*: Bright bands occur where waves are in phase.
3. *Destructive Interference*: Dark bands occur where waves are out of phase.

Applications
1. *Physics*: Demonstrates wave nature of light and particles.
2. *Optics*: Understanding double slit interference is crucial in designing optical instruments.

Wave Theory
Wave theory describes the behavior and properties of waves, including:
1. *Wave propagation*: The way waves travel through a medium.
2. *Wave characteristics*: Properties like wavelength, frequency, amplitude, and speed
Types of Waves
1. *Mechanical Waves*: Require a medium to propagate (e.g., water waves, sound waves).
2. *Electromagnetic Waves*: Can propagate through a vacuum (e.g., light, radio waves).

Key Concepts
1. *Wavelength*: Distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs.
2. *Frequency*: Number of oscillations per second.
3. *Amplitude*: Maximum displacement from equilibrium.
4. *Speed*: Distance traveled per unit time.

:Electric Flux
Definition
Electric flux is the amount of electric field that passes through a given surface.

Explanation
Electric flux is a fundamental concept in understanding electric fields and their behavior
Formula
Φ = E · A · cos(θ)

Where:

1. Φ = electric flux
2. E = electric field strength
3. A = surface area
4. θ = angle between electric field and surface normal

Applications
1. *Gauss's Law*: Relates electric flux to enclosed charge.
2. *Electric Field Calculations*: Electric flux is used to calculate electric fields.
.
Flux of a Vector Field
Definition
The flux of a vector field through a surface is a measure of the amount of the vector field that
"flows" through that surface.

Flux is a fundamental concept in vector calculus, describing the flow of vector fields through
surfaces
Formula
Φ = ∫∫_S F · dA

Where:

1. Φ = flux
2. F = vector field
3. dA = differential surface element

Applications
1. *Physics*: Flux is used to describe electric and magnetic fields.
2. *Engineering*: Flux calculations are crucial in designing systems involving fluid flow, heat
transfer, and electromagnetic fields.
.----------
7. Equipotential Surfaces**
#### **Definition**:
Imaginary surfaces where every point has the same electric potential (\(V = \text{constant}\)).
#### **Explanation**:
- No work is required to move a charge along these surfaces.
- **Always perpendicular** to electric field lines.

#### **Example**:
- Concentric spheres around a point charge.
- Parallel plates in a capacitor.
—-----
10. Solenoid
Definition**:
A tightly wound helical coil of wire that produces a uniform magnetic field inside when
current flows.
Explanation**:
- Magnetic field inside (\(B\)) depends on current (\(I\)) and turns per unit length (\(n\)):
B = uo nl

- Outside, the field is weak and similar to a bar magnet.

Example :
Used in **electromagnets**,
MRI machines,
inductors.
—------
Thin-Film Interference**
#### **Definition**:
Interference of light waves reflecting off the top and bottom surfaces of a thin film, creating
colorful patterns.
Explanation**:
- Constructive interference occurs when:
\[
2nt = m\lambda \quad (m = 0, 1, 2,...)
\]
- \(n\) = refractive index, \(t\) = film thickness.

#### **Example**:
Soap bubbles, oil slicks, anti-reflective coatings.

●​ The end