2

IGCSE BIOLOGY

cells and organisation

Learning Objectives

• Identify and describe the structure of plant cells and animal

cells, and describe the functions of their parts.

• Describe the difference between animal cells and plant cells.

• Explain the structure and function of specialised cells: red blood

cell, muscle cells, ciliated cells, xylem vessels and root hair
cells.

• Define the terms tissue, organ and organ systems, with

examples.
 Cutting sections
The slice of tissue must be only 0.01-0.1 mm thick if cells
are to be seen clearly.
Thin slices of plant tissue can be made by hand using a
sharp razor blade
The slices are called sections.
Special apparatus and techniques are needed to make
very thin sections.
Cutting sections

Transverse section Longitudinal section

 2.1

Animal Cells
 CELL STRUCTURE (ANIMAL)
2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole

You need to know the differences between plant and animal cells, the functions of the
organelles and be able to recognize them in a microscope picture or drawing.

Mircro
scope
 A section through a liver cell

cell membrane nucleus

contains the DNA,
0.00001mm thick,
regulates all chemical
encloses cytoplasm &
changes in cytoplasm
controls what enters
& sends chemical
and leaves the cell
signals to cytoplasm to
signal start or stop
cytoplasm reactions
contains many structures
& all metabolic (chemical) DNA
reactions occur here
contains the coded
instructions to make
proteins & controls cell
division

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 Complexity of Animal Cells
smooth ER
mitochondria

rough ER Golgi
apparatus
nucleus
vacuole
DNA
centriole

cytoplasm ribosome

cell membrane

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Cell Membrane

•Present in all cells

•Also called as plasma membrane or cell surface membrane
•Made up of thin layer of protein and fats
•Partially permeable
•Inside cell membrane lies cytoplasm and other cellClickBiology
TM of Animal Cell with
Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum

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 Mitochondria
•Are powerhouses of cells
•Are found in all cells except those of
a prokaryote
•In aerobic respiration, oxygen is
used to release oxygen from the
contents of the mitochondrion
(starch in plants and glycogen in
animals)

Cells containing mitochondria are-

1.Muscle cell- to work
2.Sperm cell- to swim in the semen
3.Neurons- to carry electrical nerve
impulses

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 Cytoplasm
•Jelly like substance
•Contains 70% water
•Metabolic reactions of the
cell take place over here
•Harmful and useful
substances diffuse in and
out of cells through the
cytoplasm

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 Nucleus
Liver Cells
(large)

Cytoplasm
Cell
membrane

Liver cells are particularly active in protein synthesis and lipid synthesis.
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 8

Cells from the Cheek Lining

cytoplasm

nucleus

cell membrane

0.01mm © Biophoto Associates

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 2.2

Plant Cells

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 CELL STRUCTURE (PLANT)
2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole
ONION CELL

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 CELL WALL

•Present in plant and prokaryote

cells
•In plants, made up of cellulose
•Cellulose forms fibres in criss-cross
patterns over one other
•Cell wall forms very strong covering
to cell
•Prevents cell from bursting
The cell wall is made of cellulose. Many animals digest cellulose using
bacterial enzymes, but humans cannot digest it.
The cell wall protects, supports and gives shape to the plant cell. ClickBiology
 VACUOLE
vacuole
nucleus

cell wall
mitochondria

chloroplast
cell
cytoplasm membrane

•Vacuoles are spaces in cells containing a solution called cell sap

•Large vacuoles are present in plant cells to store the useful
products formed in photosynthesis
•In animal cells, small vacuoles or no vacuoles at all can be present
as animal cells are heterotrophic
•Small vacuoles in animal cells often store food and water ClickBiology
 10

CHLOROPLASTS
0.2mm
vacuole

chloroplast

cell wall

© Biophoto Associates

Green plants contain the pigment chloroplast.

This is where sun light is absorbed and photosynthesis takes place.
Starch is also stored in the chloroplast.
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SECTION THROUGH A PALISADE
CELL OF A LEAF

cell membrane chloroplast

partially permeable green pigment where
& contains starch is produced and
cytoplasm stored
large sap vacuole
nucleus
fluid filled cell sap which
controls all
exerts pressure to keep
activities of cell
shape
cellulose cell wall
cytoplasm support, protect, keep
metabolic reactions shape
take place here

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COMPLEXITY OF PLANT CELL

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 CELL STRUCTURE (PLANT & ANIMAL)
2.3 describe the functions of the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole

Functions of the Organelles

(These are the basic definitions you must know)
Cytoplasm - site of chemical reactions in the cell

Cell Membrane - controls what enters / leaves the cell (selectively permeable)

Nucleus - contains nucleic acids, which code for the synthesis of specific proteins. These proteins
control all activity in the cell

Mitochondrion - site of respiration

Chloroplast - site of photosynthesis (contains chlorophyll)

Cell Wall - made from cellulose. Strengthens the cell and allows it to be turgid

Sap Vacuole - contains the cell sap. Acts as a store of water, or of sugars or, in some cases, of
waste products the cell needs to excrete. Helps keep plant cell turgid.
 12

STRUCTURE OF A LEAF CELL

cell wall
Longitudinal
cell membrane section

cytoplasm
vacuole
Transverse
section
nucleus

The diagram shows how a 3-dimensional leaf cell would appear in

transverse and longitudinal section
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 You should be able to:
• Identify and describe the structure of plant cells and animal
cells, and describe the functions of their parts.

• Describe the difference between animal cells and plant cells.

• Explain the structure and function of specialised cells: red

blood cell, muscle cells, ciliated cells, xylem vessels and root
hair cells.

• Define the terms tissue, organ and organ systems, with

examples.

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Comparing animal and plant cells

Found in both animal Found only in plant

and plant cells cells

cell membrane cellulose cell wall

nucleus large sap vacuole

cytoplasm chloroplast

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ClickBiology
 2.3

Specialized Cells

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 You should be able to:
• Identify and describe the structure of plant cells and animal
cells, and describe the functions of their parts.

• Describe the difference between animal cells and plant cells.

• Explain the structure and function of specialised cells: ciliated

cells, root hair cells, xylem vessels, palisade mesophyll,
nerve cells, red blood cell and nerve cell.

• Define the terms tissue, organ and organ systems, with

examples.

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 CELL STRUCTURE (PLANT & ANIMAL)
2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole

SOME SAMPLE CELL DIAGRAMS:

SPERM CELL

Root hair cell

White blood cell

Ciliated cells move bacteria and dust
away from the lungs
cilia

Cilia are small extensions of

the cell. They beat rhythmically
to sweep mucus, which has
trapped bacteria and dust,
away from the lungs

nucleus

magnification X3000

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 Root hair cells absorb minerals
and water from the soil
Cross-section of a root hair cell

cell membrane semi-permeable, so will

allow water and mineral
cytoplasm ions into the cell
contains no
chloroplasts as no
photosynthesis is
needed
root hair
increases surface area for absorption
of water and mineral ions

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Xylem vessels transport water and
minerals up the plant
xylem vessels are continuous tubes

xylem vessel

no cytoplasm
hollow: allows for
continuous flow of
water and dissolved
mineral ions

lignin
water-proof and strong;
helps support the plant
cross-section longitudinal section

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Palisade mesophyll cells where
most photosynthesis takes place

cell wall
made of cellulose nucleus
fully permeable cytoplasm
vacuole
sap filled to chloroplast cell
keep the shape green pigment where membrane
of cell photosynthesis takes partially
place permeable
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Nerve cells carry electrical impulses

Axon
part of the cell that
carries nerve impulses

gap between two neurons where

neurotransmitters/neurochemicals
are passed

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Gametes are involved in Reproduction

haploid: 23 chromosomes

haploid:
23 chromosomes

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 Red blood cells transport oxygen

cell surface membrane cytoplasm contains

no nucleus
allows more room for
haemoglobin

cytoplasm contains
haemoglobin
haemoglobin is a
protein which carries bi-concave disc shape
the oxygen molecules increases surface area
over which absorption of
oxygen can occur

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 Muscle cells contract and enable
movement of the body (not included in syllabus)
muscle

Muscle cells have

many nuclei

The strands of protein

slide over each other cell surface membrane
making the muscle cell nucleus
(fibre) shorter and causing
the muscle to contract

protein strands

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 2.4

level of organisation

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 You should be able to:

• Identify and describe the structure of plant cells and animal

cells, and describe the functions of their parts.

• Describe the difference between animal cells and plant cells.

• Explain the structure and function of specialised cells: red

blood cell, muscle cells, ciliated cells, xylem vessels and root
hair cells.

• Define the terms tissue, organ and organ systems, with

examples.

ClickBiology
A tissue is a group of cells of similar
structure that perform a shared
function
Animal tissues:
Tissues found in the leaf
muscle tissue
upper epidermal
tissue
palisade mesophyll
tissue

nervous tissue
spongy mesophyll
tissue
lower epidermal
tissue

Cross-section of a leaf
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 An organ is a structure made of a
group of tissues working together to
perform specific functions
heart lungs liver

stomach brain kidneys

Plant organs include the stem and the leaves
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 An organ system is a group of organs
that coordinate to perform related
functions
lymphatic digestive reproductive skeletal endocrine
system system system system system

respiratory excretory muscular nervous circulatory

system system system system system

In plants the shoot is an organ system consisting of leaves and the stem
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 Levels of organisation
cell tissue organ organ organism
systems

nerve cell nervous brain nervous Homo sapiens

tissue system

smallest largest

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 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
2.1 describe the levels of organisation within organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems.

Organisms are made from organizations of smaller structures. You

need to know the following hierarchy of structures.
Organelles - intracellular structures that carry out specific functions within a cell
Nucleus Chloroplast Mitochondria Ribosome Vacuole
Cells - the basic structural and functional unit from which all biological organisms are made
Neurone Skin cell Muscle cell Phagocyte Red Blood Cell
Tissues - a group of specialized cells, which are adapted to carry out a specific function
Muscle Nerves Blood Bone Adipose (Fat)
Organs - a collection of two or more tissues, which carries out a specific function or functions
Heart Skin Brain Artery Kidney
Organ Systems - a group of two or more organs
Pulmonary Cardiac Nervous Endocrine Skeletal
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
2.1 describe the levels of organisation within organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems.
 2.5

microscopy and
magnification
The difference between
magnification and resolution.

• Magnification is the degree to which the size

of an image is larger than the image itself.
• Resolution is the degree to which it is
possible to distinguish between two objects
that are very close together.
 mm

1000 1000
Micrometre

1000 1000

nm
 Nanometre Micrometre Millimetre

5 0.005 0.000005
1 0.001 0.000001
1000 1 0.001
1 000 000 1000 1
3000 3 0.003
7 0.007 0.000007
500 000 500 0.5
How do we find the overall magnification of a light microscope?

Eyepiece
Objective lens

Eyepiece Objective
Overall Magnification
Magnification Magnification

X10 X4 40
X10 X10
100
X10 X40 400
X10 X100
1000
 2.1 Cell structure and function
Observing cells
• You must be able to calculate the magnification
or actual size from a micrograph (picture from
a microscope).
• To do this use the IAM triangle.

Copyright © 2015 Henry Exham

The diagram below is a drawing of an organelle from a ciliated cell as seen
with an electron microscope.
A B

× 20 000

Calculate the actual length of the organelle as shown by the line AB in the
diagram. Express your answerI to the102mm nearest micrometer
102000mm
(mm).
A= = =
Show your working. M 20000 20000
5.1
Answer = ........................................... mm
The diagram below is a drawing of an alveolus together with an associated
blood capillary.
blood
capillary
alveolus lined w ith
squam ous epithelium

M= I
A

A
21mm B
=
1.5mm
21000mm
= cell X
1.5mm
The line AB in the diagram represents an actual distance of 1.5 µm.
Calculate the magnification of the drawing. Show your working.
Answer = × .................................................
14000
The diagram below shows the general structure of an animal cell as seen
under an electron microscope.

M= I
A
24mm
=
5mm
24000mm
=
5mm
= 4800
_________
5m 1) Calculate the magnification factor of the diagram
The diagram below shows the general structure of an animal cell as seen
under an electron microscope.

A= I
M
12mm
=
4800
12000mm
=
4800
= 2.5mm
_________
5m 2) Calculate the actual length of structure G
The diagram below shows the general structure of an animal cell as seen
under an electron microscope.

A= I
M
8mm
=
4800
8000mm
=
4800
= 1.666mm
= 1.7mm
_________
5m 3) Calculate the diameter of the nucleolus (structure B)
The diagram below shows the general structure of an animal cell as seen
under an electron microscope.

A= I
M
36mm
=
4800
36000mm
=
4800
= 7.5mm
_________
5m 4) Calculate the diameter of the nucleus
The diagram below shows the general structure of an animal cell as seen
under an electron microscope.

A= I
M
116mm
=
4800
116000mm
=
4800
= 24.16666mm
= 24.2mm
_________
5m 5) Calculate the diameter of the cell at its widest point
The diagram below shows the general structure of a plant cell when viewed
under and electron microscope.

M= I
A
23mm
=
40mm
23000mm
=
40mm
___________
= 575
40m
1) Calculate the magnification factor of the diagram
The diagram below shows the general structure of a plant cell when viewed
under and electron microscope.

A= I
M
3mm
=
575
3000mm
=
575
___________
= 5.2mm
40m
2) Calculate the thickness of the cellulose cell wall.
The diagram below shows the general structure of a plant cell when viewed
under and electron microscope.

A= I
M
98mm
=
575
98000mm
=
575
___________
= 107.4mm
40m
3) Calculate the length of the cell.
The diagram below shows the general structure of a plant cell when viewed
under and electron microscope.

A= I
M
24mm
=
575
24000mm
=
575
___________
= 41.7mm
40m
4) Calculate the length of structure C.
The diagram below shows the general structure of a plant cell when viewed
under and electron microscope.

A= I
M
71mm
=
575
71000mm
=
575
___________
= 123.5mm
40m
5) Calculate the length of the vacuole.
M= I
A
82mm
=
20mm
82000mm
=
20mm
= 4100

Calculate the actual length of structure C.

Show your working and give your answer in micrometres (μm).
 I
M= I A=
A M
82mm 15mm
= =
20mm 4100
82000mm 15000mm
= =
20mm 4100
= 4100 = 3.6mm

Calculate the actual length of structure C.

Show your working and give your answer in micrometres (μm).