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Edexcel IGCSE Biology Your notes

Cell Structure
Contents
Cell Structures
Animal & Plant Cells: Similarities & Differences
Importance of Cell Differentiation
Stem Cells in Medicine: Advantages & Disadvantages

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Cell Structures
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Cell Structures
Cells are separated from their surrounding environment by a cell membrane
Within the cell membrane is the cytoplasm
Eukaryotic cells have organelles contained within their cytoplasm
Organelles are subcellular compartments where specific processes take place within the cell
Within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells the following organelles are present
Nucleus
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion)
Ribosomes
Plant cells contain the following additional structures
Cell wall
Chloroplasts
Permanent vacuole

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When viewed under a microscope the structures inside a plant cell are visible. Ribosomes and
mitochondria are too small to view under a light microscope but are visible with the higher resolution of
an electron microscope.

Cell Structures & Functions

Cellular Structures & Functions Table

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Your notes

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Animal & Plant Cells: Similarities & Differences

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Plant & Animal Cells
Animal cells
The main subcellular structures in animal cells are:
The nucleus: contains genetic material
Cell membranes: controls what enters and leaves the cell
Mitochondria: site of aerobic respiration
Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis
Cytoplasm: chemical reactions take place in this jelly-like substance

Some cellular structures can only be seen when viewed with an electron microscope

Plant cells
In addition to the subcellular parts found in animal cells, plant cells have:
A cell wall made of cellulose: gives the cell shape and protection

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A permanent vacuole filled with cell sap: pushes the cytoplasm against the cell wall, keeping the
cell turgid
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Plant cells found in the leaf and stem may also contain chloroplasts: the site of photosynthesis

The plant cell shown above contains chloroplasts, so it would be found in the leaves of a plant
Similarities & differences between animal & plant cells table
Structure Animal Plant

Nucleus Yes Yes

Cytoplasm Yes Yes

Cell membrane Yes Yes

Cell wall No Yes

Mitochondria Yes Yes

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Chloroplasts No Yes
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Ribosomes Yes Yes

Vacuole Yes - small & temporary Yes - large & permanent

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You need to be able to recognise, draw and interpret images of cells, so practice drawing and
labelling animal and plant cells as part of your revision.

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Importance of Cell Differentiation

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Cell Differentiation & Specialised Cells
The structural differences between different types of cells enable them to perform specific functions
within the organism
Cell differentiation is an important process by which a cell changes to become specialised
Cell differentiation is how cells develop the structure and characteristics needed to be able to
carry out their functions
Specialised cells are those that have developed certain characteristics that allow them to
perform particular functions. These differences are controlled by genes in the nucleus
As an organism develops, cells differentiate to form different types of cells
When a cell differentiates, it develops a structure and composition of subcellular structures which
enables it to carry out a certain function
E.g. to form a nerve cell the cytoplasm and cell membrane of an undifferentiated cell must
elongate to form connections over large distances

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Diagram showing the possible differentiation of a human cell into two different cell types

Differentiation and development Your notes

As a multicellular organism develops, its cells differentiate to form specialised cells
In an animal, most cells differentiate at an early stage of development
As a result, animal cells lose their ability to differentiate early in the life of the organism
Specific cells in various locations throughout the body of an animal retain the ability to differentiate
throughout the life of the animal
These undifferentiated cells are called adult stem cells and they are mainly involved in replacing
and repairing cells (such as blood or skin cells)
Plants differ from animals in that many types of plant cells retain the ability to fully differentiate
throughout the life of a plant, not just in the early stages of development

Examples of specialised cells

Ciliated cell
Ciliated cells move mucus in the trachea and bronchi
They have hair-like extensions called cilia, which beat to transport mucus and trapped particles
toward the throat

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Ciliated epithelial cells

Nerve cell
Nerve cells conduct impulses and are long, allowing communication between different parts of the
body and the central nervous system
Their axons are covered in a fatty sheath that insulates and speeds up nerve transmission

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A nerve cell
Red blood cell
Red blood cells transport oxygen efficiently due to their biconcave shape, increasing surface area for
oxygen diffusion
They contain haemoglobin and lack a nucleus, maximizing space for oxygen transport

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Red blood cells

Root hair cell
Root hair cells absorb water and mineral ions from the soil
Their long extensions increase surface area for maximum absorption, and their thin walls help water
move quickly through them

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Root hair cell

Palisade mesophyll cell
Palisade mesophyll cells perform photosynthesis and are column-shaped to maximize light
absorption
They contain numerous chloroplasts and are tightly packed beneath the upper epidermis of the leaf to
optimize photosynthesis

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Palisade mesophyll cell

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Stem Cells in Medicine: Advantages & Disadvantages

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Stem Cells
A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell of an organism that is capable of dividing an unlimited number of
times
Stem cells can give rise to other cell types through the process of differentiation
The table below summarises different types of stem cells

Types of Stem Cells Table

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Embryonic stem cells are important as they help to form all of the different tissues and organs needed
during development to form a whole new individual - they are totipotent
The role of adult stem cells is predominantly to replace cells lost through damage or to produce new
cells for growth – although the bone marrow has to continually make new blood cells throughout life
In plants, meristem cells are unspecialised cells that can differentiate into the cells needed by the
plant in regions where growth is occurring

Stem Cells in Medicine

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Modern scientific techniques mean that is possible to grow human embryos in the lab and to extract
embryonic stem cells from them
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These embryonic stem cells can then be encouraged to differentiate into most types of specialised
cell
There is the potential for scientists and doctors to use stem cell technology to repair damaged organs
by growing new tissue from stem cells
The new tissue is produced by human embryos, using genetic information from the patient
Adult stem cells can also be cultured in the lab and made to differentiate into specialised cells but of
fewer types than embryonic stem cells (predominantly cells of the blood)
Stem cells could be used to cure many diseases in the future, such as diabetes and paralysis
Stem Cell Treatment Table

Therapeutic cloning as a source of stem cells

In therapeutic cloning, an embryo is produced with the same genes as the patient

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A 5-day old embryo is the best source of embryonic stem cells

Stem cells from embryos created in this way are not rejected by the patient’s body so they may be Your notes
used for medical treatment without the patient having to take drugs to suppress their immune system
(which reduce the body’s ability to fight infection)

Diagram showing the process of therapeutic cloning for diabetes

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Evaluating the use of stem cells in medicine

There are many benefits and risks associated with using stem cells in medicine, as well as considerable Your notes
ethical and social concerns

Evaluating Stem Cells in Medicine Table

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