Deflection,

Lecture 5
1.Strain/Work Energy.

Energy 2. Principle of Virtual Work

Methods, 3. Deflections of Trusses by the

Beams, Virtual Work Method

Trusses, 4. Deflections of Beams by the

Virtual Work Method

Frames. 5. Deflections of Frames by the

Virtual Work Method
Summary
 • Work/energy methods are more
general than the geometric
methods in the sense that they can
be applied to various types of
Introducti structures, such as trusses, beams,
on and frames. A disadvantage of
these methods is that with each
application, only one deflection
component, or slope, at one point of
the structure can be computed.
Work
• The work dW that P performs as its point of application undergoes an infinitesimal
displacement, d (Fig. 7.1(a)), can be written as: dW = P(d). The total work W that
the force P performs over the entire displacement  is obtained by integrating the
expression of dW as,
Continued
• As Eq. (7.1) indicates, the work is equal to the area under the force-
displacement diagram as shown in Fig. 7.1(b). When the force varies linearly
with displacement from zero to its final value, as shown in Fig. 7.1(c). The work
for such a case is given by the triangular area under the force-displacement
diagram and is expressed as,

• Another special case of interest is depicted in Fig. 7.1(d). In this case, the force remains
constant at P while its point of application undergoes a displacement  caused by some
other action independent of P. The work done by the force P in this case is equal to the
rectangular area under the force-displacement diagram and is expressed as,

• W = PD (7.3)
Contiued
• The work dW that a couple of moment M performs through an infinitesimal rotation dØ
(see Fig. 7.1(a)) is given by: dW = M(dØ). Therefore, the total work W of a couple with
variable moment M over the entire rotation Ø can be expressed as,

• When the moment of the couple varies linearly with rotation from zero to its final value,
the work can be expressed as,
W =1/2 MØ
(7.5)
and, if M remains constant during a rotation y, then the work
is given by, W = MØ
(7.6)
2. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK
There are wo formulations of this principle, namely, the principle of virtual displacements for
rigid bodies and the principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies. The latter formulation is
used in the following sections to develop the method of virtual work, which is one of the most
general methods for determining deflections of structures.

Principle of Virtual Displacements for Rigid Bodies, can be stated as follows:

If a rigid body is in equilibrium under a system of forces and if it is
subjected to any small virtual rigid-body displacement, the virtual work done by the external
forces is zero.

• Principle of Virtual Forces for Deformable Bodies, can be stated as follows:

If a deformable structure is in equilibrium under a virtual system
of forces (and couples) and if it is subjected to any small real deformation consistent with
the support and continuity conditions of the structure, then the virtual external work done by
the virtual external forces (and couples) acting through the real external displacements (and
rotations) is equal to the virtual internal work done by the virtual internal forces (and
couples) acting through the real internal displacements (and rotations).
Continued
• The method of virtual work is
based on the principle of virtual
forces for deformable bodies as
expressed by Eq. (7.16), which
can be rewritten as,

virtual external work

= virtual internal work
(7.17)

or, more specifically, as,

3. DEFLECTIONS OF TRUSSES BY THE VIRTUAL WORK METHOD

• If F represents the axial force in an arbitrary member j (e.g., member CD in Fig. 7.4(a))
of the truss, then the axial deformation of this member is given by,

• The virtual external work performed by the virtual unit load as it goes through the real
deflection  is equal to,
Continued

By equating the virtual external work (Eq. (7.20))

to the virtual internal work (Eq. (7.21)) in
accordance with the principle of virtual forces for
deformable bodies, we obtain the following
expression for the method of virtual work for truss
deflections:
 Continued
• When the deformations are caused by external loads, Eq. (7.19) can be
substituted into Eq. (7.22) to obtain,

Temperature Changes and Fabrication Errors

The expression of the virtual work method as given by Eq. (7.22) is quite general in the sense that it can be used to determine tr
are either known or can be evaluated beforehand.
The axial deformation of a truss member j of length L due to a change in temperature (T) is given by,

in which a denotes the coefficient of thermal expansion of member j. Substituting Eq. (7.24) into Eq.
Procedure for Analysis

• The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the deflections of

trusses by the virtual work method.
1. Real System
If the deflection of the truss to be determined is caused by external loads, then
apply the method of joints and/or the method of sections to compute the (real)
axial forces (F) in all the members of the truss.
2.Virtual
System Remove all the given (real) loads from the truss; then apply a unit load at
the joint where the deflection is desired and in the direction of the desired
deflection to form the virtual force system. By using the method of joints and/or
the method of sections, compute the virtual axial forces (Fv) in all the members of
the truss.
3. The desired deflection of the truss can now be
determined by applying Eq. (7.23) if the deflection is due to external loads, Eq.
(7.25) if the deflection is caused by temperature changes, or Eq. (7.22) in the case
of the deflection due to fabrication errors.
4. DEFLECTIONS OF BEAMS BY THE VIRTUAL WORK METHOD
Procedure for Analysis (Beams)
• The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the slopes and deflections of
beams by the virtual work method.
1. Real System Draw a diagram of the beam showing all the
real (given) loads acting on it.
2. Virtual System Draw a diagram of the beam without the real loads. If
deflection is to be determined, then apply a unit load at the point and in the direction of the
desired deflection. If the slope is to be calculated, then apply a unit couple at the point on the
beam where the slope is desired. 3. By examining the real
and virtual systems and the variation of the flexural rigidity EI specified along the length of the
beam, divide the beam into segments so that the real and virtual loadings as well as EI are
continuous in each segment.
4. For each segment of the beam, determine an equation expressing the
variation of the bending moment due to real loading (M) along the length of the segment in terms
of a position coordinate x. 5. For each segment of the beam, determine
the equation for the bending moment due to virtual load or couple (Mv) using the same x
coordinate that was used for this segment in step 4 to establish the expression for the real
bending moment, M. The sign convention for the virtual bending moment (Mv) must be the same
as that adopted for the real bending moment in step 4.
6. Determine the desired deflection or slope of the beam by applying the
appropriate virtual work expression, Eq. (7.30) or Eq. (7.31).
5. DEFLECTIONS OF FRAMES BY THE VIRTUAL WORK METHOD

• Application of the virtual work method to determine the slopes and deflections of
frames is similar to that for beams.
Procedure for Analysis (Frames)

• The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the slopes and
deflections of frames by the virtual work method:
1. Real
System Determine the internal forces at the ends of the members of the frame due to
the real loading.
2. Virtual System If the
deflection of the frame is to be determined, then apply a unit load at the point and in
the direction of the desired deflection. If the rotation is to be calculated, then apply a
unit couple at the point on the frame where the rotation is desired. Determine the
member end forces due to the virtual loading.

3. If necessary, divide the members of the frame into segments so that the real
and virtual loads and EI are continuous in each segment.
4. For each segment of
the frame, determine an equation expressing the variation of the bending moment due
to real loading (M) along the length of the segment in terms of a position coordinate x.
Continued
• 5. For each segment of the frame, determine the equation for the bending
moment due to virtual load or couple (Mv) using the same x coordinate that was
used for this segment in step 4 to establish the expression for the real bending
moment, M.
6. If the effect of axial deformations is to be included in the
analysis, then go to step 7. Otherwise, determine the desired deflection or
rotation of the frame by applying the appropriate virtual work expression, Eq.
(7.37) or Eq. (7.38). End the analysis at this stage.
7. If necessary, divide the members of the frame into
segments so that the real and virtual axial forces and AE are constant in each
segment. It is not necessary that these segments be the same as those used in
step 3 for evaluating the virtual internal work due to bending. It is important,
however, that the same sign convention be used for both the real axial force, F,
and the virtual axial force, Fv, in a particular segment. 8. Determine the
desired deflection or rotation of the frame by applying the appropriate virtual
work expression, Eq. (7.35) or Eq. (7.36).
SUMMARY

• In this lecture we have learned that the work done by a force P (or couple M) during a
displacement  (or rotation Ø) of its point of application in the direction of its line of action
is given by,

• The principle of virtual work for rigid bodies states that if a rigid body is in equilibrium
under a system of forces and if it is subjected to any small virtual rigid-body
displacement, the virtual work done by the external forces is zero. The principle of virtual
forces for deformable bodies can be mathematically stated as Wve = Wvi
(7.16)

• in which Wve = virtual external work done by virtual external forces (and couples) acting
Continued
• and Wvi = virtual internal work done by the virtual internal forces (and couples) acting
through the real internal displacements (and rotations) of the structure.
The method of virtual work for
determining the deformations of structures is based on the principle of virtual forces for
deformable bodies. The method employs two separate systems: (1) a real system of
loads (or other effects) causing the deformation to be determined and (2) a virtual
system consisting of a unit load (or unit couple) applied at the point and in the
direction of the desired deflection (or rotation). The explicit expressions of the virtual
work method to be used to determine the deflections of trusses, beams, and frames
are as follows: