DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
The collective processes by which a living organism takes food which are
necessary for their growth, maintenance and energy needs is called nutrition.
The chemical substances present in the food are called nutrients.

DIFFERENT MODE OF NUTRITION IN ORGANISMS

It is important to know the different modes of nutrition in all living
organisms in order to understand energy flow within the ecosystem. Plant
produces high energy organic food from inorganic raw materials. They are
called autotroph and the mode of nutrition is known as autotrophic nutrition.
Animals feed on those high energy organic food, are called as heterotrophs and
their mode of nutrition is known as heterotrophic nutrition.

Heterotrophic nutrition further sub-categorise in holozoic, parasitic, and

saprophytic mode of nutrition based on the pattern and class of food that is
taken inside.

Holozoic Nutrition: It involves taking entire organic food and this can be
in the form of whole part of plant or animal. Most of the free living protozoans,
humans and other animals fall under this category.

Saprophytic Nutrition: The organism fulfils the requirement of food

from the rotten parts of dead organisms and decaying matter. The organisms
secrete digestive enzymes outside the body on their food and then take in
digested food. It is a kind of extra-cellular digestion. Examples: Housefly,
Spiders etc.

Parasitic Nutrition: The organism fulfils the requirement of food from the
body of another organism. The parasites are of two distinct types, one which lives
inside the host and the other which lives outside. The internal parasites usually

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multiply inside the body cavity of host and most of the times are life threatening
while the other lives outside and can play the role of vectors in spreading
diseases. Example of internal parasites are plasmodium, tapeworms etc. while the
example of external parasites may include mostly fleas and insects.

DIFFERENT STEPS OF NUTRITION

Ingestion: The act of taking food inside by the organisms is called
ingestion. Most of the animals consume solid food, excepting a few
(mosquitoes, flies and spiders suck in liquid food). Different animals use
different organs for this purpose. For example Amoeba, a unicellular organism
can ingest food from its body surface. In Hydra, the food is taken inside with
the help of tentacles. In vertebrates like frogs, birds and mammals, well-
developed organs and methods are present to ingest food.

Feeding involves procurement as well as ingestion of food. Depending

upon the nature of food, feeding may be of three types in animals.

Microphagy: This method is also known as filter feeding. Food particles

smaller in size pass through filter along with water. The food particles are
trapped and utilized whereas water is removed through body. Examples of
organisms which show microphagy are paramecium, sponges, crustaceans,
certain fishes and birds, blue whales, etc.

Macrophagy: This method involves the feeding of food particles which

are large in comparison to the size of the organism. Organisms swallow whole
food without chewing. Example of organisms which shows macrophagy are
amoeba, hydra, certain amphibians, reptiles, fishes and birds.

Liquid feeding: Leeches, tape-worm, mosquitoes, bugs, spiders, flies,

bats and mil-sucking young mammals shows different feeding behaviour where
they ingest liquid food, known as liquid feeding or fluid-feeding.

We have listed some mode of feeding that organism exhibits

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 Filter feeding: feeding particles suspended in water.
 Deposit feeding: feeding particles suspended in soil.
 Bulk feeding: feeding all of an organism.
 Fluid feeding: feeding fluid of other organisms.
 Ram feeding and suction feeding: ingesting food particles via the fluids
around it.

Mechanism of ingestion in unicellular organisms (such as amoeba)

When food particles come in contact with the cell surface of amoeba, it
slowly engulfs the whole food with the help of pseudopodia. This process takes
place in approximately 2 min.

Different modes of ingestion reported in amoeba are as follows:

 Circumvallation: With the help of pseudopodia food cup form to engulf
active prey like Paramecium.
 Circumfluence: Amoeba rolls over the inactive prey.
 Import: Food particles like algal filaments passively sink into the body;
when it comes in contact.
 Invagination: A sticky and toxic substance is secreted by pseudopodia,
which kills the prey and then taken by invagination
 Pinocytosis: Certain channels present on the body surface of amoeba to
ingest liquid food.

Digestion of food in Unicellular Organism (Amoeba): Ingested food

remains in food vacuole. The food vacuole is then transported deeper into the
cytoplasm where they fuse with lysosome that contains amylase and certain
proteinases. After digestion solid food is converted into liquid diffusible form
and readily absorbed by cytoplasm through diffusion process. The undigested
food is egested by exocytosis. The complete steps of nutrition are shown in
Figure 1.

Mechanism of Digestion in multi-cellular organism (such as Hydra)

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 Hydra is a fresh water diploblastic animal. Its body composed of two
layer. Outer layer is protective and sensory epithelium and inner layer is
gastrodermis act as a nutritive epithelium. The central body cavity known as
coelenteron act as digestive tract.

Figure 1 : Steps of Digestion in Amoeba.

Hydra catches the prey with the help of tentacles, a protrusion just outside
the mouth. The circumference of mouth can extend according to the size of food
particle. Thus it can swallow comparatively large animal. Soon after ingestion,
digestion process starts with the help of enzymes secreted by granular glands,
which appears just after ingestion. The undigested food is then egested through
mouth. The complete mechanism of nutrition in hydra is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 : Steps of Digestion in Hydra.

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Mechanism of Digestion in sponges:
Sponges don’t have distinct digestive system. They engulf food by the
support of water flow system. They show filter feeding behaviour, where food
particle filter out of the water passing through them. Only particle smaller than
50 micrometre can enter through ostia. Sponges consume food by phagocytosis
with the help of pinacocytes or archaeocytes. Food particles smaller than 0.5
micrometre can catch and consumed by choanocytes.

Mechanism of Digestion in Lower Vertebrate such as Cockroach:

Cockroach searches the food with the help of antennae, maxillary and
labial palps. These appendages bear sense organs. With the help of labium and
labrum, the pro-legs pick up and bring food to the pre-oral cavity. Mandibles
contain teeth which help in mastication of food in pre-oral cavity. The lacinia
present in the maxillae also helps in mastication. The food is mixed with saliva
in pre-oral cavity. The saliva of cockroach contains amylase, chitinase and
cellulose which digest carbohydrate partially in pre-oral cavity. Food from pre-
oral cavity is then transported to esophagus and then into the crop. Crop is
analogous to stomach of human, which store food for some time and also
digestion takes place. Then food reaches to gizzard for crushing into fine
particles, which then passes to midgut. Most of the digestion carried out in
midgut. Digested food is absorbed by the inner lining of midgut through
diffusion. The undigested food passes to hindgut. Water and electrolytes absorb
here and undigested liquid food is converted to semisolid faces, which the
passed out through anus in the form of small dry pellets. The complete digestive
system of cockroach is shown in Figure 3.

MECHANISM OF DIGESTION IN HIGHER VERTEBRATE (SUCH AS

HUMAN):
(1) INGESTION: The amount of food that an individual ingest in depend on
the intrinsic desire for food (known as hunger) and the type of food that an
individual seeks is determined by appetite. For maintaining an adequate supply

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of nutrition to the body these mechanisms are important. In most of the higher
animals there are mainly two mechanism of ingestion: 1) Mastication or
chewing and 2) Deglutition or swallowing.

Figure 3 : Digestive System of Cockroach.

Mastication or chewing: The foods engulfed or captured by most of the

mammals are mechanically broken into smaller pieces. The teeth are perfectly
designed for chewing. The anterior teeth (incisors) provide a strong cutting
action and the posterior teeth (molars) a grinding action. Jaw bones and muscles
help them in doing this work. In herbivores animal (e.g. sheep, cow and horse)
the premolar and molar teeth have well developed ridges for effective grinding
of the food. In carnivores animals (e.g. tiger, cat, dog) the canine teeth are sharp
and large for tearing the flesh. Chewing process is mainly caused by chewing
reflex. The presence of bolus in mouth first initiates reflex inhibition of the
muscles of mastication, which causes the lower jaw to drop. The drop of lower
jaw initiate a stretch reflex of the jaw muscle that in turn initiate rebound
contraction, which automatically raise the jaw upward to closure of the teeth.
But again bolus compress against the lining of mouth, which inhibit the jaw
muscles once again, allowing the jaw to drop again and rebound another time;
this is repeated again and again.

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 Chewing is important for proper digestion of any king of food (except
liquid food) but it is most important of fruits and raw vegetables because there
indigestible cellulose membrane around the nutrients causes hindrance for
digestion. Chewing also increase the surface area of food so that enzymes can
act properly and increase the rate of digestion.

Deglutition or swallowing: Swallowing is a complicated process

because pharynx is involved both in respiration and swallowing. The pharynx is
converted into food tract only for few seconds at a time without compromising
respiration.
Swallowing can be divided into three stages:
1. Voluntary stage: initiation of swallowing process.
2. Pharyngeal stage: involuntary movement of food from pharynx to
esophagus.
3. Esophageal stage: involuntary movement of food from esophagus to
stomach.

Digestion involves the breaking of complex organic food molecules into

simpler one by hydrolysis. Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids are
large complex organic food molecules. They are insoluble and polymeric in
nature. During digestion different enzymes helps in breakdown of these
complex polymers into soluble monomers which are required for energy
generation.

The different steps of digestion involve:

1. Movement of food through the alimentary tract
2. Secretion of digestive juices and digestion of food
3. Absorption of water, various electrolytes, vitamins and digestive end
products.

Human digestive system mainly consists of two parts:

(1) Alimentary tract and (2) secretory glands

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1. Alimentary tract: It provides continual supply of nutrients, vitamins,
electrolytes and ater. The following steps involved to achieve this.
(a) Movement of food through tract
(b) Secretion of digestive juices
(c) Digestion of food components
(d) Absorption of digestive product and water
(e) Excretion of unabsorbed food.

Figure 4 shows the complete alimentary tract. It comprises the following parts.

a) Mouth:
Human mouth consists of vestibule and oral cavity. The slit like space
between cheeks and gums is known as vestibule. The cavity surrounded by
palate, tongue and teeth is known as oral cavity or buccal cavity. Mouth is the
first passage of food where large piece of food is fragmented to small pieces
with the help of teeth and mixed with saliva. Tongue manipulates food during
chewing and mixing with saliva. This mixture of food with saliva, bolus, is then
moved inward through pharynx into Esophagus. This process is known as
deglutition or swallowing.

Figure 4: Human alimentary tract.

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b) Esophagus:
It is also known as food pipe or gullet, is about 25 cm long. It presents
behind the trachea and heart. Its primary function is to conduct food from
pharynx to the stomach. Food in esophagus is pushed is pushed downward by
involuntary muscle contraction of circular muscle, this movement is called as
peristalsis. Due to contraction of the longitudinal muscles lower part of
esophagus become short which pushes its wall outward so that it can receive the
bolus. The circular muscles of esophagus then relax. The contractions are
repeated in a wave that moves downward to the stomach as shown in Figure 5.
The cardiac sphincter lies between esophagus and stomach allows the
conduction of bolus into stomach. The sphincter closes again. Medulla
oblongata controls the peristalsis.

Figure 5: Peristalsis.

c) Stomach:
It is the widest organ of the alimentary canal. Figure 6 shows the anatomy
of the stomach and Table 1 give the detail of enzymes. It is divided into two
major parts 1) the body and 2) the antrum. Physiologically we can divide it
into 1) the orad portion (first two third of the body) 2) the caudad portion
(remainder portion of body and antrum).

As food enters in the orad portion of stomach, it forms concentric circles.

When food stretches the wall of stomach, vagovagal reflex travels from stomach
to brain and back to stomach. Due to which the tone of muscular wall of stomach
body reduces and the wall starts bulging out so that it accommodate greater

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quantity of food. In the completely relaxed stomach 0.8 to 1.5 litres food can
occupy. After mixing of food with the stomach secretions, the resulting mixture
is called chyme, further passes down the gut. Partial digestion of food (protein
and fats) takes place here. It produce castle’s intrinsic factor which is required for
the absorption of vitamin B12 to be absorbed through intestinal wall.

Figure 6: Physiological anatomy of the stomach

d) Small intestine:
It comprises three parts viz. duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Due to its
small diameter, it is named so. The length of small intestine is correlated with
the height of person but not with the weight. It is about 6.25 meters long. Thus,
it is the longest part of alimentary tract. Chyme is conducted through small
intestine by peristaltic movement. When chime stretches the intestinal wall, it
elicits localized concentric contractions spaced at intervals cause segmentation
of small intestine. In such a way chyme moves toward the anus at a speed of 0.5
to 2.0 cm/s. Movement in proximal parts is faster than terminal portion. During
movement of chyme through small intestine complete digestion of proteins,
carbohydrates, fats and nucleic acids occurs.

e) Large intestine:
Its diameter is always larger than small intestine but it varies from one
region to another. It is about 1.5 m long. It is divided into three parts: cecum,
colon and rectum. Cecum is a pouch type structure. The outgrowth of cecum is
a vestigial body known as vermiform appendix. The cecum is more developed

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in herbivorous mammals than carnivorous. The junction of ileum with cecum is
guarded by the ileocecal valve. The function of this valve is to prevent
backflow of fecal contents from colon to ileum. The valve can resist back
pressure of at least 50 to 60 cm of water.

The main functions of colon are

(i) Absorption of electrolytes and water from chyme.
(ii) Temporary storage of fecal matter.

The proximal region of colon concerned mainly with absorption and

distal region with storage. The colon has three longitudinal bands called teniae
coli and small pouches called haustra. Thus the mixing movement in colon is
called as haustration. The movement in colon are sluggish.

The lower portion of descending colon is sigmoidal in shape and opens

into rectum. It is 20 cm long and terminates in the 2 cm long anal tract. When a
mass movement propels feces into rectum, the desire for defecation occurs.

The opening of anal tract is called anus. The anus has two sphincter.
Internal anal sphincter composed of smooth muscle fibre and external anal
sphincter composed of striped muscle fibre (voluntary in nature). The moderate
quantities of vitamin B complex and vitamin K also found by bacteria in large
intestine.

Table 1: Site of digestion and final products.

Macromolecule Digestion Digestion Final products
starts complete
Carbohydrate Mouth Duodenum Glucose
Protein Stomach Duodenum Amino acids
Fat Duodenum Duodenum Fatty acids & glycerol
Nucleic acid Duodenum Jejunum Nitrogenous bases +
pentose sugar + inorganic

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 phosphate

2. Secretary Glands: The primary function of secretary glands is the secretion

of digestive enzymes for digestion of food and mucus for lubrication and
protection of tract. Most digestive secretion occurs in precise amount only in
response to the presence of food in alimentary tract. We have discussed major
digestive glands.

a) Salivary glands:
The major gland of salivation are parotid, submandibular and
sublingual glands. Along with this there are many small buccal glands. A
Healthy individual secretes about 0.8 to 1.5 litres of saliva daily. Saliva mainly
composed two major type of proteins. A) Ptyalin (an α-amylase) - for digestion
of starch, B) Mucin – for protection of surface. Parotid glands are larges
salivary glands situated near ears. The parotid glands secrete mainly ptyalin,
whereas submandibular and sublingual glands secrete both ptyalin and mucin.
The small buccal glands secrete only mucus. The pH of saliva is between 6 to 7
which favours the digestive action of ptyalin.

The esophageal glands secretes only mucous which provide lubrication

for swallowing.

b) Gastric glands:
The entire surface of stomach lining contains mucus- secreting cells. The
stomach mucosa has two types of tubular glands: Oxyntic glands (gastric
glands) and pyloric glands. The oxyntic glands secrete hydrochloric acid
pepsinogen, intrinsic factor and mucus. The pyloric gland secretes mainly
mucus for protection from stomach acid. They also secrete gastrin hormone.

c) Liver:
It is larges gland of the body, mainly secrete bile normally between 0.6 to
1 litre/day. Bile serves two major function.

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i) Fat digestion and absorption: Along with the enzymes for fat digestion
bile acids in bile helps to emulsify the large fat particles of food into
many small particles, the surface of which attacked by lipase enzymes
secreted in pancreatic juice. Bile acids aid in absorption of end product
digested fat through the intestinal mucosal membrane.
ii) Excretion of waste products from blood: An important waste product
bilirubin, an end product of haemoglobin digestion and excesses of
cholesterol are excreted out with the help of bile.
A pear shaped structure attached to the posterior surface of the liver
stores 30 to 60 ml bile secreted by the liver.

d) Pancreas:
The pancreas is soft lobulated large compound gland whose internal
structure is similar to salivary gland. It lies parallel to and posterior to stomach.
Pancreatic acini secrete digestive enzymes whereas large amount of sodium
bicarbonate solution are secreted by small ductules and larger ducts. The
mixture of enzymes and sodium bicarbonates passes through a long pancreatic
duct. Pancreatic duct joins with hepatic duct before it empties into duodenum
through the papilla of vater.

Pancreatic secretion contains enzymes (Table 2) for digesting all three

major food component: carbohydrate, protein and fats.

Table 2: List of pancreatic enzyme

Pancreatic enzyme Substrate
Trypsin Protein
Chymotrypsin
Carboxy peptidase
Pancreatic amylase Carbohydrate
Pancreatic lipase Fats
Cholesterol esterase
Phospholipase

e) Intestinal glands:

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 These are formed by modification of surface epithelium of small
intestine. The two main intestinal glands are Brunner’s gland and Crypts of
Lieberkühn.
i) Brunner’s glands are found only in first few centimetres of duodenum.
They secrete large amount of alkaline mucus to protect the duodenal wall
from highly acidic gastric juice and to neutralize hydrochloric acid.
ii) Crypt of Lieberkühns are small pits located all over the entire surface of
the small intestine, lies between the intestinal villi. They are covered by
epithelium composed of two types of cells. 1) Goblet cells: secrete
mucus. 2) Enterocytes: secrete water and electrolyte, also reabsorb the
water and electrolyte along with the end product of digestion over the
surface of adjacent villi. At the base of these crypts, paneth cells and
argentaffin cells are present.

Paneth cells found mainly in duodenum are rich in zinc and contain
acidophilic granules. Argentaffin cells synthesize secretin hormone and 5-
hydroxytryptamine.

Table 3: List of digestive enzymes in human

Enzyme Substrate Site of action
Ptyalin (salivary amylase) Starch Mouth
Pepsin Proteins Stomach
Gastric Lipase Little amount of fats
Renin Casein Child’s stomach
Pancreatic amylase Starch
Trypsin Proteins
Chymotrypsin Proteins
Elastase Protein (Elastin)
Carboxypeptidase Large peptides
Pancreatic lipase Fats (Triglycerides)
Nuclease Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) Small Intestine
Enterokinase Trypsinogen
Aminopeptidase Large peptides
Dipeptidase Dipeptides
Disaccharidase Disaccharide

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Intestinal lipase Fats
Nucleotidase Nucleotide
Nucleosidase Nucleoside
Absorption is the process by which simpler nutrients (monosaccharide,
amino acids, fatty acids etc.) pass from alimentary tract into blood and lymph. It
can be occur by simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and active
transport.

Absorption starts from stomach but it is poor absorptive area because

here junction between epithelial cells are tight junction and villi are absent on
its inner wall. Little amount of water, salts, alcohol, few drugs and moderate
amounts of sugar are absorbed through stomach. Absorption of nutrients mainly
occurs in small intestine. Vitamins produced due to bacterial digestion and
water absorbed in large intestine.

Intestines absorbs collective amount of ingested fluid and fluid secreted

in gastrointestinal secretions. Throughout the inner wall of small intestine many
folds called valvulae conniventes (also known as folds of kerckring) present,
which increase the surface area for absorption. The valvulae conniventes
covered by small protrusions known as villi (singular ‘Villus’). Figure 7 shows
the longitudinal section of the villus.

Figure 7: Longitudinal section of the villus.

Absorption of Monosaccharides: Absorption of glucose and galactose

occur through active transport. Sodium pump on the cell membrane helps in its

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active transport. Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion. Glucose,
galactose and fructose are absorbed into the blood capillaries. Galactose is the
most rapidly transported monosaccharide.
Absorption of amino acids: Amino acids are absorbed by active
transport coupled with active sodium transport. They also enter the blood
stream.

Absorption of fatty acids and glycerol: Fatty acids and glycerol are
insoluble in water thus they can’t enter in blood stream directly. In intestinal
lumen, bile salts and phospholipids incorporates fatty acids and glycerol into small,
spherical water soluble droplets known as micelles. Fat soluble vitamins and
sterols along with fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by diffusion by the help of
micelles into intestinal cells, where they are resynthesized in the endoplasmic
reticulum and are converted into small droplets known as chylomicrons. Latter
most of them released into lymph present in lacteals (lymphatic capillaries).

Absorption of water: Osmosis helps in the absorption of water in small

intestine through epithelial cells surface and villi into the blood capillaries. In order
to maintain the osmolality, electrolytes and digested food absorb along with water.

Absorption of electrolytes: Sodium can move in and out of epithelial

cells by diffusion process and in mucosal cells it moves by active transport.
Many others ions such as potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron and phosphate
absorbed by active transport. Whereas chloride ions can be absorbed through
diffusion or active transport. Vitamin D and parathyroid hormone enhance the
absorption of calcium.

Absorption of vitamins: Most water soluble vitamins (Vitamin B

complex, Vitamin C, Vitamin P) absorbed by diffusion. Castle’s intrinsic
factors play an important role in reabsorption of vitamin B12.

Assimilation and egestion:

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Finally, all absorbed nutrients transported by blood and lymph further
transferred to blood circulation. With the help of blood nutrients reach to target
body cells, where it become integral component of protoplasm and used for
energy, growth and repair. This process is known as assimilation.
The excess of monosaccharide stores in liver and muscles in the form of
glycogen by the process called glycogenesis. Excess of amino acids are
converted into glucose and then to fat through an irreversible reaction and then
stored. Most of the fats stored in subcutaneous layers and mesenteries.

Another important step is egestion, the process by which undigested food

materials eliminated through anus in the form of faeces. Egestion occurs by
peristalsis movement. After absorption of water in colon, chyme converted into
semisolid faeces. When faeces enters into rectum, wall of rectum feels
distension which induces desire of defecation due to a defecation reflex. Due to
this reflex peristalsis initiated in the sigmoidal colon and reaches to anus
through rectum. Involuntary action of internal anal sphincter and voluntary
action of external anal sphincter thus helps in defecation.

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