Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook

for Fleet Managers

2 Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets

Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
PEV Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
PEV Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Buying the Right PEVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Driving and Maintaining PEVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Charging PEVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Choosing Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Clean Cities Helps Deploy PEVs and

Charging Infrastructure
Successfully deploying plug-in electric vehicles
(PEVs) and charging infrastructure requires unique
knowledge and skills. If you need help, contact
your local Clean Cities coalition. Clean Cities is the
U.S. Department of Energy’s flagship alternative-
transportation deployment initiative. It is supported
by a diverse and capable team of stakeholders from
private companies, utilities, government agencies,
vehicle manufacturers, national laboratories, and
other transportation-related organizations. These
stakeholders, organized into nearly 100 Clean Cities
coalitions nationwide, are ready to help fleets with
specific PEV deployment challenges. Contact your
local coalition by visiting the Clean Cities website
at www.cleancities.energy.gov.

Photo from Kathy Boyer, Triangle Clean Cities Coalition,

NREL/PIX 18520

Disclaimer
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States government. Neither the United States government nor
any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the ac-
curacy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately
owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not
necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States government or any agency thereof. The views and
opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States government or any agency thereof.
Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets 3

Introduction
You’ve heard the buzz about the new light-duty plug-in
electric vehicles (PEVs) like the Chevy Volt and Nissan Key Acronyms
Leaf, and you’re wondering whether they could benefit
your fleet. Or perhaps your fleet is looking to reduce EVs (all-electric vehicles) are powered only by one
petroleum use, and you’re curious whether PEVs are or more electric motors. They receive electric-
a good solution. Maybe you’d like to know about ity by plugging into the grid, and they store it in
advanced medium- and heavy-duty PEV options that batteries. They consume no petroleum-based
cut fuel costs and eliminate tailpipe emissions in your fuel while driving and produce no tailpipe
fleet. If so, this handbook is for you. It’s designed to emissions.
answer your basic questions about PEVs and charging
EVSE (electric vehicle supply equipment) delivers
infrastructure and point you to additional information
electrical energy from an electricity source to
so you can make the best decisions for your fleet.
charge a PEV’s batteries. It communicates with
the PEV to ensure that an appropriate and safe
The PEV concept isn’t new. More than 100 years ago, all-
flow of electricity is supplied.
electric vehicles (EVs) held much of the U.S. car market,
but their popularity waned as the interest in conventional HEVs (hybrid electric vehicles) combine an ICE or
cars with internal combustion engines (ICEs) rose. At other propulsion source with batteries, regenera-
that time, the ICE vehicle had a longer driving range, tive braking, and an electric motor to provide
petroleum fuel costs were declining, and the introduction high fuel economy. They rely on a petroleum-
of the electric starter and manufacturing assembly line based or alternative fuel for power and are not
improved the affordability and usability of conventional plugged in to charge. HEV batteries are charged
vehicles with an ICE. Gasoline- and diesel-powered ICE by the ICE or other propulsion source and during
vehicles ended up dominating transportation in the regenerative braking.
20th century.
ICEs (internal combustion engines) generate
mechanical power by burning a liquid fuel (such
Concerns about the environmental impacts of ICE
as gasoline, diesel, or biofuels) or a gaseous fuel
vehicles sparked a PEV renaissance at the end of the
(such as compressed natural gas). They are the
20th century. In 1990, California passed the nation’s
dominant power source used in on-road vehicles
first zero emission vehicle mandate, putting the state
today.
at the forefront of that decade’s deployment of PEVs,
such as the General Motors EV1, Chrysler EPIC, Ford PEVs (plug-in electric vehicles) derive all or part
Electric Ranger, and the Toyota RAV4 EV. Although of their power from electricity supplied by the
many vehicles from this generation were discontinued in electric grid. They include EVs and PHEVs.
the early 2000s, California’s vision helped set the stage
for the next generation of PEVs. PHEVs (plug-in hybrid electric vehicles) use bat-
teries to power an electric motor, plug into the
Today, PEVs are back and ready to compete with—and electric grid to charge, and use a petroleum-
complement—the ubiquitous ICE technology. Advances based or alternative fuel to power an ICE or other
in electric-drive technologies enabled commercializa- propulsion source.
tion of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which inte-
grate an ICE with batteries, regenerative braking, and
an electric motor to boost fuel economy. Continued Only a few light-, medium-, and heavy-duty PEV models
technological advances have spawned plug-in HEVs are available today. But because of the benefits they
(PHEVs), which integrate small ICEs and large, grid- offer, PEV market penetration and availability are
chargeable batteries that enable all-electric driving growing quickly. PEVs are as good as or better than con-
ranges of 10 to 40 miles or more. Advanced technolo- ventional vehicles in some performance categories. They
gies have also enabled manufacturers to introduce a are safe, convenient, and can slash your fleet’s operating
new breed of PEVs that don’t use an ICE at all. costs while demonstrating your community leadership.
4 Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets

PEV Basics
What makes PEVs unique is their
ability to charge from an off-board
electric power source. In other words,
PEVs can be “plugged in.” This feature
distinguishes them from HEVs, which
supplement power from an ICE or
other propulsion source with battery
power but cannot be plugged in. There
are two basic types of PEVs: EVs and
PHEVs.

All-Electric Vehicles (EVs)

EVs (also called battery-electric

vehicles or BEVs) use batteries to
store the electrical energy that powers
one or more motors. The batteries are
charged by plugging the vehicle into
an electric power source. EVs can also Under the hood of a Nissan Leaf. An EV contains no ICE. Instead, the battery
be charged in part by regenerative supplies electricity to the electric motor. Photo from Margaret Smith, DOE, NREL/
braking, which generates electricity PIX 18215
from some of the energy normally lost
when braking. EVs use no petroleum-
based fuel while driving and therefore produce no tail- personal transporters, which are not intended for road
pipe emissions (see the PEV Benefits section for more use. Although these types of vehicles are valuable for
information about emissions). the niches they serve, this handbook focuses on EVs
designed for highway use.
Today’s EVs typically have a shorter range than con-
ventional vehicles have. Most light-, medium-, and Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs)
heavy-duty EVs are targeting a range of about 100 miles
on a fully charged battery. The range depends in part PHEVs (sometimes called extended range electric vehi-
on driving conditions and habits (see the Factors That cles, or EREVs) use batteries to power an electric motor
Affect All-Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Efficiency and use another fuel, such as gasoline or diesel, to
and Range section). power an ICE or other propulsion source. Some heavy-
duty PHEV concepts use a microturbine or fuel cells
The time required to fully charge depleted batteries— for onboard power generation, instead of using an ICE.
which can range from less than 30 minutes to almost a Powering the vehicle some of the time with electricity
full day—depends on the size and type of the batteries, from the grid cuts petroleum consumption and tailpipe
as well as the type of charging equipment used. Learn emissions compared with conventional vehicles. When
more about charging in the Charging PEVs section. running on gasoline, PHEVs, like HEVs, consume less
fuel and typically produce lower emissions than similar
Neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs), also called ICE vehicles.
low-speed vehicles, are a type of EV with range and
speed limitations. NEVs are commonly used for neigh- PHEVs have larger battery packs than HEVs, providing
borhood commuting, light hauling, and delivery. They an all-electric driving range of about 10 to 40-plus miles
are often limited to use on roads with speed limits up to for current light-duty models. During typical urban
35 miles per hour, making them ideal for college cam- driving, most of a PHEV’s power can be drawn from
puses and similar applications. There are also specialty stored electricity. For some urban fleet applications, a
EVs, such as airport ground support equipment and PHEV could be driven on all-electric power all day and
Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets 5

PHEV System Designs

There are two categories of PHEV systems, which
differ in how they combine power from the electric
motor and the engine.
• Parallel PHEVs connect the engine and the
electric motor to the wheels through mechanical
coupling. Both the electric motor and the engine
can drive the wheels directly.
• Series PHEVs use only the electric motor to drive
the wheels. The ICE is used to generate electric-
ity for the motor. The Chevy Volt uses a slightly
modified version of this design: the electric
motor drives the wheels almost all of the time,
but the vehicle can switch to work like a paral-
lel PHEV at highway speeds and/or when the
battery is depleted.

In all-electric mode, PEVs produce no tailpipe emissions. Factors That Affect Plug-In Electric and Hybrid
PEV lifecycle emissions are minimized when their source
Electric Vehicle Efficiency and Range
of electricity comes from nonpolluting resources like wind
and sunlight. Photo from Atlantic County Utilities Authority,
The efficiency and driving range of PEVs varies sub-
NREL/PIX 18311
stantially based on driving conditions and driving
habits. Extreme outside temperatures tend to reduce
then charged at night or even during a down time like range because more energy must be used to heat or cool
lunch. The ICE powers the vehicle when the battery is the cabin. Cold batteries do not provide as much power
mostly depleted, during rapid acceleration, or when as warm batteries do. The use of electrical equipment,
intensive heating or air conditioning is required. Some such as windshield wipers and seat heaters, can reduce
heavy-duty PHEVs work the opposite way, with the ICE range. High driving speeds reduce range because more
used for driving to and from a job site and electricity energy is required to overcome increased air resis-
used to power the vehicle’s equipment or control the tance. Rapid acceleration reduces range compared with
cab’s climate while at the job site. Because the vehicle smooth acceleration. Hauling heavy loads or driving up
would otherwise be idling at the job site to power equip- significant inclines also reduces range. The Nissan Leaf
ment or climate control systems, this PHEV strategy website (www.nissanusa.com/leaf-electric-car) provides
can result in significant fuel savings. examples of driving conditions and resulting ranges
for the Leaf, as well as tips to help you maximize
PHEVs can be plugged into the grid and charged, but your range.
the time required to charge depleted batteries is typically
shorter for PHEVs than EVs, because most have smaller With PHEVs, the ICE is activated when driving
battery packs. In addition, when in use, PHEV batteries demands exceed the capacity of the all-electric propul-
are charged by their ICEs and regenerative braking. sion system, resulting in operation similar to that of
HEVs. The effects of this hybrid mode of operation vary
PHEV fuel consumption depends on the distance driven substantially based on vehicle type, route, duty cycle,
between battery charges. For example, if the vehicle is and cargo load. In general, HEVs provide the largest
never plugged in to charge, fuel economy will be about fuel economy advantage over conventional ICE vehicles
the same as for a similarly sized HEV. If the vehicle is during stop-and-go “city” driving. This is because
driven a shorter distance than its all-electric range and HEVs can take advantage of the electric motors’ ability
plugged in to charge, it may be possible to use only to stay highly efficient across broad ranges of motor
electric power. speed and frequent changes in acceleration, keeping the
6 Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets

engine running more smoothly at a more efficient speed Hybrid vs. Conventional Diesel Package Delivery Trucks
than in a conventional vehicle. In addition, the HEV’s
14
regenerative braking recaptures and uses some of the
energy normally lost during braking. Examples of light- Hybrid Improvement (mpg)
12
and medium-duty hybrid versus conventional vehicle Conventional (mpg)
32%
operation are shown in Figure 1. 10

Fuel Economy (mpg)

Training your drivers about the optimal ways to operate 8 37% 34%
PEVs can maximize the efficiency and range of your
fleet’s vehicles. Check with your PEV manufacturers 6
about the availability of training materials.
4

2
PEV Benefits
0
More frequent accelerations/decelerations
What can PEVs do for your fleet? They can lower your
operating costs and help you comply with government
policies while demonstrating your commitment to envi- Hybrid vs. Conventional Gasoline Sedans
ronmental protection and energy security.
50 Hybrid Improvement (mpg)

High Fuel Economy, Low Operating Cost Conventional (mpg)

40 19%
Fuel Economy (mpg)

PEVs can reduce your fleet’s fuel costs dramatically

41%
because of the low cost of electricity versus conven- 60%
30
tional fuel. Because PEVs rely in whole or part on
electric power, their fuel economy is measured differ-
ently than in conventional vehicles. You might see it 20
stated as miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (mpge).
Or it may be broken down by kilowatt-hours (kWh) per
100 miles for EVs and the electric mode of PHEVs, and 10
miles per gallon (mpg) for the ICE mode of PHEVs.
Depending on how they’re driven, today’s EVs (or 0
PHEVs in electric mode) can exceed 100 mpge. More frequent accelerations/decelerations

Powering a light-duty PEV with electricity costs only 3

Figure 1. Examples of light- and medium-duty hybrid versus
to 5 cents per mile. In contrast, fueling a gasoline car
conventional vehicle operation. Sources: Sedan data from
that has a fuel economy of 27.5 mpg costs about 14 cents
FuelEconomy.gov, comparison of model year 2011 hybrid electric and
per mile. If 15,000 miles are driven per year, driving
conventional Honda Civics; package delivery truck data from Twelve-
the PEV in all-electric mode instead of driving the
Month Evaluation of UPS Diesel Hybrid Electric Delivery Vans, www.
conventional gasoline car could save $1,300 to $1,600 in
nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/44134.pdf. Graphs by Dean Armstrong, NREL
annual fuel costs.1 The fuel economy of medium- and
heavy-duty vehicles is highly dependent on the load
carried and the duty cycle, but PEVs maintain a strong If your utility offers lower electricity rates for charging
fuel-cost advantage in this category of vehicles as well. during off-peak times, such as at night, you may be able
to reduce your PEV fuel costs even further by charging
1 Fuel cost savings depend on electricity and gasoline prices as well during these times. Learn more from Idaho National
as vehicle types and driving patterns. This illustration compares a Laboratory’s report Comparing Energy Costs per Mile
gasoline car with a fuel economy of 27.5 mpg (combined city and for Electric and Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles (http://avt.inel.
highway) assuming a gasoline cost of $3.75/gallon versus PEVs gov/pdf/fsev/costs.pdf ). Notably, electricity prices are
operated in electric mode at 3 cents to 5 cents per mile (which typically less volatile than gasoline and diesel prices,
assumes an electricity cost of 11 cents/kWh). making it easier for fleets to predict fuel costs over time.
Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets 7

High Performance

Today’s PEVs are state-of-the-art highway vehicles

ready to match or surpass the performance of their con-
ventional gasoline and diesel counterparts. However,
some medium- and heavy-duty vehicles have a limited
maximum speed (e.g., 50 to 75 miles per hour) appropri-
ate to their vocation. In addition, PEVs in all-electric
mode are much quieter than conventional vehicles and,
unlike conventional vehicles, produce maximum torque
and smooth acceleration from a full stop. This low-end
torque can be especially useful when hauling heavy
loads. In fact, this torque is the reason locomotives use
electric motors, powered by diesel ICE generators, to
cover long distances.
PEVs can help regulated fleets comply with government
requirements. Photo from Richard Bogacz, New West Flexible Fueling
Technologies, LLC, NREL/PIX 19665
Depending on how your fleet operates, you may fuel
The reduced maintenance requirements of PEVs com- vehicles at fleet facilities, public fueling stations, or
pared with conventional vehicles may also lower your both. Like conventional vehicles, PEVs are well suited
operating costs. See the Vehicle Maintenance section for to any of these fueling options. Charging stations at
more information. fleet facilities enable PEVs to be recharged overnight
and during idle times (see the Charging PEVs section).
Compliance with Fleet Requirements In addition, a network of public PEV charging stations
is beginning to be established, which will enable PEVs
The Energy Policy Act (EPAct) of 1992 and subsequent to charge when idle for a few hours away from their
federal regulatory activities require certain fleets owned home base. The old “gas station” concept will remain
or operated by federal and state agencies or alternative an option as well—with an electric twist. Along major
fuel providers to acquire alternative fuel vehicles or transportation corridors, governments and businesses
reduce petroleum consumption in other ways. Electric- are establishing public fast-charging stations, which
ity is an EPAct-defined alternative fuel, so PEVs help can significantly boost PEV batteries in less than 30
covered fleets meet EPAct requirements. For more minutes. Of course, PHEVs will be able to fuel with
information, see the EPAct Transportation Regulatory gasoline or diesel (or possibly other fuels in the future)
Activities website (www.eere.energy.gov/vehicles at fueling stations when necessary.2
andfuels/epact). PEVs can also help fleets comply with
state and local alternative transportation policies; find Low Emissions
relevant policies on the Alternative Fuels and Advanced
Vehicles Data Center (AFDC) Incentives and Laws PEVs can have significant emissions benefits over con-
database (www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/laws). ventional vehicles. Vehicle emissions can be divided into
two general categories: air pollutants, which contribute
Community Leadership to smog, haze, and health problems; and greenhouse
gases (GHGs), such as carbon dioxide and methane,
Some fleets are required to minimize their petroleum which contribute to climate change. Both categories of
use or emissions. Others do so voluntarily to meet their emissions can be evaluated on a direct basis and on a
organizations’ environmental or energy-security objec- life cycle basis. Direct emissions are emitted through
tives, demonstrate community leadership, improve their the tailpipe, as well as through evaporation from the
public image, and differentiate themselves from com- vehicle’s fuel system and during the fueling process. EVs
petitors. Fleets that are highly visible—such as transit
and school buses, law-enforcement vehicles, and taxis— 2 In the future, PHEVs may be capable of fueling with alternative fuels
are particularly well suited to project a positive image such as E85 (a fuel composed of 51% to 83% ethanol, and gasoline),
through the use of PEVs. compressed natural gas, or hydrogen.
8 Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets

produce zero direct emissions. PHEVs produce zero graphic areas that use relatively low-polluting energy
tailpipe emissions when they are in all-electric mode, sources for electricity generation, PEVs typically
but they do produce evaporative emissions. And when have a life cycle emissions advantage over similar
using the ICE, PHEVs do produce tailpipe emissions. conventional vehicles running on gasoline or diesel.
However, their direct emissions are typically lower than In regions that depend heavily on conventional fossil
those of comparable conventional vehicles. fuels for electricity generation, PEVs may not demon-
strate a life cycle emissions benefit. Use the GREET
Life cycle emissions include all emissions related to Fleet Footprint Calculator (http://greet.es.anl.gov/
fuel and vehicle production, processing, distribution, carbon_ footprint_calculator) to explore the GHG and
use, recycling, and disposal. In the case of gasoline, petroleum-saving benefits of adding PEVs to your fleet.
emissions are produced while extracting petroleum
from the earth, refining it, distributing the fuel to sta- Energy Security
tions, and burning it in vehicles. In the case of elec-
tricity, most electric power plants produce emissions, PEVs can help make the United States more energy
and there are additional emissions associated with the independent. Today, our cars and trucks—and the way
extraction, processing, and distribution of the fuels of life they support—depend almost entirely on petro-
they use. For all types of vehicles, emissions are also leum. The U.S. transportation sector accounts for two-
produced when extracting raw materials for vehicle thirds of our petroleum consumption. With much of the
production; manufacturing, distributing, maintaining, world’s petroleum reserves located in politically volatile
and operating the vehicles; and recycling and disposing countries, our reliance on petroleum makes us vulner-
of vehicles and their components, including batteries. able to price spikes and supply disruptions. PEVs help
As such, the life cycle emissions associated with any reduce this threat because almost all U.S. electricity is
vehicle are significant. produced from domestic coal, nuclear energy, natural
gas, and renewable sources. From a local standpoint,
The life cycle emissions associated with a PEV depend PEVs help reduce the impacts of gasoline and diesel
on the source of electricity used to charge it. In geo- price volatility on your fleet.

Buying the Right PEVs

As with any vehicle purchase, before choosing a PEV
you should assess your fleet’s driving requirements,
applicable mandates or policies, and budget. Then,
you can compare your needs with the available PEVs.

Driving Requirements

Your fleet has specific operating needs which must

be met. Additional factors must be considered when
deciding whether to purchase PEVs for your fleet.
For example, do you have a need for an EV, which
typically drives about 100 miles on electricity?
Or do you need a PHEV, which may have a much
shorter all-electric range but can use another fuel for
extended driving range? This depends largely on the
vehicle’s route, opportunities for charging, and the
availability of charging stations. For vehicles that
drive less than 100 miles per day and can plug in at Today’s EVs can typically travel about 100 miles on a full
night, an EV might be suitable. If charging is avail- charge, more than enough for the daily driving needs of many
able during the vehicle’s idle periods, an EV could go fleet applications. Photo from Margaret Smith, DOE, NREL/PIX 19545
beyond the 100-mile daily range. Otherwise, a PHEV
Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets 9

might be the best choice for extended driving. Compare

the fuel economy and range of light-duty PEVs and Example Light-Duty PEV Prices, 20111
conventional vehicles using FuelEconomy.gov (www.
fueleconomy.gov). Chevy Volt (PHEV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $40,280
Nissan Leaf (EV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $32,780
Availability

As of this writing, only a few light-duty PEV models are Example Medium- and Heavy-Duty PEV
commercially available. PEV technology is just begin- Prices, 2011
ning to make inroads into the U.S. vehicle market, but
the number of available vehicles is predicted to grow Ford Transit Connect EV
quickly. For comparison, only two HEV models were (Class 3 van)2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $57,400
available in the late 1990s, compared with 29 models in
Navistar eStar
2011. To find currently available PEVs, use the AFDC
(Class 3 van)3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $150,000
Light-Duty Vehicle Search (www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/
vehicles/search/light). Learn about anticipated PEV SEV Newton
introductions from the Electric Drive Transportation (Class 5 vocational truck)4 . . . . . . $123,600
Association (www.electricdrive.org/index.php?ht=d/
ZeroTruck
sp/i/11551/pid/11551) and FuelEconomy.gov (www.
(Class 5 van/vocational truck)4 . . $155,500
fueleconomy.gov/feg/phevnews.shtml and www.
fueleconomy.gov/feg/evnews.shtml).
1. Manufacturer’s suggested retail prices, before incentives.
A larger number of medium- and heavy-duty PEV 2. As reported in The New York Times, Dec. 7, 2010, “Ford Starts
models are currently available, most of which are EVs. to Ship an Electric Delivery Van.”
Applications include delivery trucks, step vans, transit 3. As reported in Autoblog Green, May 15, 2010.
and shuttle buses, and utility trucks. To find currently
4. As reported in the U.S. General Services Administration (GSA)
available medium- and heavy-duty PEVs, use the
2011 Model Year Alternative Fuel Vehicle Guide. Note that GSA
AFDC Heavy-Duty Vehicle and Engine Search
prices may not be available to non-GSA-supported fleets.
(www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/search/heavy).

In addition to limited availability of PEV models, early

PEV introductions (starting in 2010) have been limited The federal Qualified Plug-In Electric Drive Motor
to select geographic areas to match dealer and service Vehicle Tax Credit is available for PEV purchases
preparation. However, it is expected that at least some through 2014 (or until PEV manufacturers meet a
PEVs will be available from select dealerships in all 50 certain level of mass production). It provides a tax
states by the end of 2011. Because of the popularity and credit of $2,500 to $7,500 for new PEV purchases, with
limited initial production of PEVs, there may be a wait the specific credit amount determined by the size of the
time involved in obtaining these vehicles. vehicle and the capacity of its battery. It is limited to
vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating up to 14,000
Some PEVs are now available to federal fleets from the pounds. As of December 2011, all of the available light-
U.S. General Services Administration (GSA). See GSA’s duty PEVs qualified for the credit. Some of the available
Alternative Fuel Vehicles page (www.gsa.gov/portal/ medium-duty EVs also qualified for a credit.
content/104211) for a list of the latest offerings.
Depending on your fleet’s location, you may also be eli-
Prices and Incentives gible for PEV incentives from your state, city, or utility.
To find relevant incentives, search the AFDC’s Federal
Purchase prices for today’s PEVs are considerably and State Incentives and Laws database (www.afdc.
higher than for similar conventional vehicles, although energy.gov/afdc/laws). For even more information about
prices are likely to decrease as production volumes incentives in your area, contact your local Clean Cities
increase. Fleets can reduce the cost of owning PEVs coalition (www.afdc.energy.gov/cleancities/progs/coalition
through lower operating costs (see the PEV Benefits _locations.php) or state energy office (www.naseo.org/
section) and government incentives. members/states/default.aspx).
10 Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets

Conversions

It is possible to convert conventional vehicles and HEVs

into PHEVs by adding battery capacity and onboard
charging equipment. Conventional vehicles can also be
converted into EVs by removing the engine and adding
a battery pack, electric motor, charging equipment,
and control equipment. When considering these con-
versions, be sure to do your homework: In some cases,
conversions can affect the vehicle’s factory warranty. In
addition, some companies have offered PHEV conver-
sions without obtaining the required national certifica-
tions from federal and state regulatory agencies, such
as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the
California Air Resources Board. Therefore, it is critical
to make sure that companies performing conversions
on your vehicles have received the necessary approvals.
For links to companies that provide light-, medium-, or
heavy-duty PHEV conversions, visit the AFDC’s PEV A variety of medium- and heavy-duty PEVs are available.
conversions page (www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/ Photo by Trish Cozart, NREL/PIX 19544
electric_conversions.html).
need to be replaced outside the warranty, it is expected
to be a significant expense. However, battery prices
Driving and Maintaining PEVs should decline as the benefits of technological improve-
ments and economies of scale are realized.

PEVs are at least as easy to operate and maintain as con- Safety

ventional vehicles, but some special considerations apply.
PEVs must undergo the same rigorous safety testing
Vehicle Maintenance and meet the same safety standards required for con-
ventional vehicles sold in the United States. In addi-
Because PHEVs have ICEs, maintenance requirements tion, a PEV-specific standard sets requirements for
for this system are similar to those in conventional limiting chemical spillage, securing batteries during a
vehicles. However, the PEV electrical system (battery, crash, and isolating the chassis from the high-voltage
motor, and associated electronics) likely will require system to prevent electric shock.
minimal scheduled maintenance. Because of regen-
erative braking, brake systems on PEVs typically last PEV manufacturers have designed their vehicles with
longer than on conventional vehicles. In general, EVs safety features that deactivate the high-voltage electric
require less maintenance than conventional vehicles do, system in the event of a collision. EVs tend to have
because there are usually fewer fluids to change and far a lower center of gravity than conventional vehicles,
fewer moving parts. making them less likely to roll over and often improv-
ing ride quality.
Battery Life
One safety concern specific to PEVs is their silent oper-
Like the ICEs in conventional vehicles, the advanced ation: Pedestrians may be less likely to hear a PEV than
batteries in PEVs are designed for extended life but will a conventional vehicle. The National Highway Traffic
wear out eventually. Currently, Nissan and General Safety Administration is studying ways to address this
Motors are offering eight-year/100,000-mile warranties issue, such as requiring PEVs to emit audible sounds
for the batteries in the Leaf and the Volt. PEV dealer- at low speeds. This option is already available on some
ships will have specific information about battery life PEVs, including the Volt and the Leaf. In any case,
and warranties. Although manufacturers have not pub- PEV drivers should be trained to use extra caution in
lished pricing for replacement batteries, if the batteries pedestrian areas.
Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets 11

Figure 2. A Chevy Volt charges up with public Level 2 EVSE at Los Angeles International Airport. Photo from Coulomb Technologies

Charging PEVs
Charging a PEV requires plugging in to electric vehicle
supply equipment (EVSE). EVs must be charged regu- Typical Charging Rates
larly, and charging PHEVs regularly will minimize the
amount of gasoline or diesel they consume. There are The rate at which charging adds range to a PEV
various types of EVSE—which differ based on how depends on the vehicle, the battery type, and the
quickly they can charge a vehicle—and EVSE can be type of EVSE. The following are typical rates for a
installed at your fleet facility or accessed in public light-duty vehicle:
(Figure 2).3 This section describes the EVSE options so Level 1: 2 to 5 miles of range per hour of charging
you can choose what’s best for your fleet.
Level 2: 10 to 20 miles of range per hour of
Types of Charging Equipment (EVSE) charging
DC fast charging: 60 to 80 miles of range in 20
EVSE is the equipment used to deliver electrical energy minutes of charging
from an electricity source (such as the electricity
running to your fleet facility’s outlets) to a PEV. EVSE
communicates with the PEV to ensure that an appropri- to the vehicle. Charging times range from less than
ate and safe flow of electricity is supplied. 30 minutes to 20 hours or more, based on the type of
EVSE, as well as the type of battery, how depleted it is,
EVSE for PEVs is classified into several categories and its energy capacity. EVs generally have more battery
by the rate at which the batteries are recharged. Two capacity than PHEVs, so charging a fully depleted EV
types—Level 1 and Level 2—provide alternating- takes longer than charging a fully depleted PHEV.
current (AC) electricity to the vehicle, with the vehicle’s
onboard equipment converting AC to the direct current Many medium- and heavy-duty PEV manufacturers are
(DC) needed to charge the batteries. The other type— adopting light-duty charging standards or commercially
DC fast charging—provides DC electricity directly available standards developed for other uses. However,
some manufacturers are introducing alternative charg-
3 Home EVSE is another PEV charging option. For more information, ing configurations in their medium- and heavy-duty
see the Clean Cities Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Consum- PEVs, so EVSE options and performance may be differ-
ers (www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/51226.pdf). ent for these vehicles.
12 Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets

Level 1 Level 2

Level 1 EVSE provides charging through a 120-volt (V) Level 2 EVSE offers charging through a 240-V (typical
AC plug and requires a dedicated branch circuit. Most, in residential applications) or 208-V (typical in com-
if not all, PEVs will come with a Level 1 EVSE cord set mercial applications) AC plug and requires installation
so that no additional charging equipment is required. of charging equipment and a dedicated electrical circuit
On one end of the cord is a standard, three-prong house- (Figure 3). Because Level 2 EVSE can easily charge a
hold plug (NEMA 5-15 connector). On the other end is a typical EV battery overnight, this will be a common
J1772 standard connector (see the Connectors and Plugs installation for fleet facilities. Level 2 equipment uses
section on the next page), which plugs into the vehicle. the same connector on the vehicle as Level 1 equipment.
Based on the battery type, charger configuration, and
Level 1 is typically used for charging when there is only circuit capacity, Level 2 charging adds about 10 to 20
a 120-V outlet available. Depending on the battery type miles of range to a PEV per hour of charging time.
and vehicle, Level 1 charging adds about 2 to 5 miles of
range to a PEV per hour of charging time. DC Fast Charging

DC fast-charging EVSE (480-V AC input to the EVSE)

Utility enables rapid charging at sites such as heavy traffic cor-
240-V AC ridors and public fueling stations (Figure 4). A DC fast
charger can add 60 to 80 miles of range to a light-duty
PEV in 20 minutes.
Control Device
Utility
Cord 480-V
EVSE 3-Phase
EV
Connector Coupler
Inlet
Charger

Charger
Cord EVSE
Battery EV
Connector Coupler

Inlet

Battery

Figure 3. Level 2 charging schematic.

Source for both figures: eTec (2010), Electric Vehicle Charging Infra-
structure Deployment Guidelines for the Oregon I-5 Metro Areas of
Portland, Salem, Corvallis and Eugene. EV Project publication, www.
theevproject.com/documents.php. Illustrations by Dean Armstrong,
NREL Figure 4. DC fast charging schematic.
Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets 13

should eliminate drivers’ concerns about whether their

vehicles are compatible with available infrastructure. To
receive DC fast charging, most currently available PEVs
are using the CHAdeMO connector, developed in coor-
dination with Tokyo Electric Power Company, which is
not standard in the United States. Manufacturers may
offer the CHAdeMO DC fast charge receptacle (Figure
6) as an option on vehicles until a standard is in place.
SAE International is also working on a “hybrid connec-
tor” standard for fast charging that adds high-voltage
DC power contact pins to the J1772 connector, enabling
use of the same receptacle for all levels of charging.

Charging at a Fleet Facility

Figure 5. The standard EVSE connector fits into the If your fleet uses PEVs, Level 2 EVSE—and possibly
standard receptacle. Photo by Andrew Hudgins, NREL/PIX 17634 DC fast charging—might be appropriate to install at
a facility where your fleet vehicles can charge. Figure
7 (next page) summarizes the process for installing
fleet EVSE, and the following sections address consid-
erations related to installing and operating EVSE at
a fleet facility.4 As Figure 7 shows, it is important to
consult with your utility, electrical contractor, PEV pro-
vider, and EVSE provider early in the EVSE installation
process. For additional details about installing EVSE,
see the Clean Cities Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook
for Electrical Contractors.

Planning

Thorough planning is essential to successful instal-

Figure 6. The standard J1772 receptacle (right) can receive lation of fleet EVSE. The following are important
charge from Level 1 or Level 2 equipment. The CHAdeMO considerations.
DC fast charge receptacle (left) uses a different type of
connector. Photo by Andrew Hudgins, NREL/PIX 19558 • Number and Type of EVSE Units: Determine your
EVSE requirements by estimating your fleet’s needs
Inductive Charging over at least the next several years. This should
include projected PEV acquisitions and potential
Inductive-charging EVSE uses an electromagnetic field changes in PEV technologies and charging require-
to transfer electricity to a PEV without a cord. It is still ments (e.g., switching from PHEVs to EVs). If you
being used in some areas where it was installed for EVs are considering eventual expansion of your PEV
in the 1990s. Currently available PEVs cannot use induc- fleet, consider adding extra circuits, electrical capac-
tive charging, although SAE International is working on ity, and conduit from the electrical panel to future
a standard that may apply to PEVs in the future. EVSE locations. It is usually less expensive to install
extra panel and conduit capacity during initial con-
Connectors and Plugs struction than to modify the site later. Analyze your

Most modern EVSE and PEVs have a standard connec- 4 These recommendations are primarily summarized from PG&E’s
tor and receptacle (Figure 5). This connector is based Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment Installation Manual (http://
on the SAE J1772 standard developed by SAE Interna- evtransportal.org/evmanual.pdf) and eTec’s Electric Vehicle Charging
tional. Any vehicle with this plug receptacle can use any Infrastructure Deployment Guidelines for the Oregon I-5 Metro Areas
Level 1 or Level 2 EVSE. All major vehicle and charging of Portland, Salem, Corvallis and Eugene (www.theevproject.com/
system manufacturers support this standard, which documents.php).
14 Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets

fleet’s electricity and charging-time needs by plot- can serve multiple vehicles. This presents a trad-
ting electricity-use and time requirements for all of eoff: Level 2 equipment is less expensive than DC
your PEVs. This will enable you to assess electrical- fast charging equipment, but DC fast charging may
upgrade needs and choose the appropriate number reduce land use and installation labor costs com-
and type of EVSE units, in consultation with your pared with Level 2. Further, DC fast charging may
utility and the manufacturers of the PEVs and EVSE be required for PEVs that drive more than 100 miles
you are using. Note that Level 2 EVSE typically in a day. Before you install DC fast charging for your
requires one unit per vehicle (to enable overnight fleet, check that using it regularly doesn’t void your
charging of all vehicles), whereas DC fast charging fleet’s PEV warranties.

Figure 7. General process for installing EVSE at a fleet facility. Source: eTec (2010), Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Deployment
Guidelines for the Oregon I-5 Metro Areas of Portland, Salem, Corvallis and Eugene. EV Project publication, www.theevproject.com/documents.php.

Fleet Manager
Considers PEV
Utility Considerations OEM Considerations
1. PEV Rate Structure 1. Level 2 or DC Fast Charging
Consultation
2. Availability of Power Consultation 2. Current and Future PEV Needs
with PEV and
3. Plan Charging Times with Utility 3. Analysis of On-Road Times
EVSE Suppliers
4. Load Sharing Options 4. Analysis of Expected Charge Times
5. Other Requirements? 5. Determination of Number of
Chargers Required

Fleet Manager Contractor Considerations

Consults with Electrical
1. Proximity to Utility Service Panel
Contractor
2. Standing Water/Flood Issues
3. Safety and Accessibility Considerations
4. Avoidance of Tripping Hazard
5. Installation Meets Building Code
Electrical Requirements
Service Plan 6. Installation Meets Local Zoning
Requirements
7. Additional Lighting Requirements
8. Load Sharing Options

Site Plan Contractor Considerations

Developed
1. Drawing of EVSE Location
2. Electrical Plan Including New Circuit
3. Additional Meter Requirements if
Obtain Permits Necessary
4. Concrete Cutting, Trenching,
Landscape Considerations
5. Contractor Estimate
Utility Service Conduct
Upgrade Installation
Completed Approving Authority Considerations
1. All Building Codes Satisfied
2. Qualified and Certified Contractor
Installation Completed
- Final Inspection
and Approval
Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets 15

• Convenience: Locate EVSE and associated PEV

parking as close as possible to the electric service
while accommodating other activities within your
fleet’s facility. Keep in mind that PEVs can be parked
for hours at a time for charging.

• Avoiding Hazards: Cords and wires associated with

EVSE should not interfere with pedestrian traffic or
present tripping hazards. PEV charging spaces should
not be located near potentially hazardous areas.

• Ventilation: Although most of today’s advanced

batteries do not require ventilation during charg-
ing, some older types emit gases during charging. PEVs are suitable for many applications, including
If PEVs are charged with these types of batteries in military cargo delivery. Photo from Smith Electric Vehicles,
an enclosed space, there must be adequate ventila- NREL/PIX 17631
tion, which may include installation of fans, ducts,
and air handlers. Depending on the installation, the
National Electrical Code may also require ventilation. Choosing an EVSE Provider and Electrical
Verify the requirements with the PEV manufacturer’s Contractor
documentation.
Several companies manufacture and sell EVSE.
• Battery Temperature Limits: Because some PEV Some have partnered with a PEV manufacturer to
batteries have operating- and charging-temperature become a “preferred EVSE provider,” so one way to
limits, EVSE may need to be located within an choose EVSE is to use the company recommended
enclosed, climate-controlled area in extreme climates. by your PEV manufacturer or dealer. You can also
discuss EVSE options with your electrical contrac-
• Pooled Water and Irrigation: EVSE is designed to tor and utility. If you choose an EVSE provider
operate safely in wet areas. However, users will be before choosing an electrical contractor, you can
more comfortable if it is not located where water discuss potential electrical contractors with your
pools or where irrigation systems spray. EVSE provider—they likely will have a preferred-
contractor list for your area. Find links to EVSE pro-
• Preventing Impact: Curbs, wheel stops, and setbacks vider websites on the AFDC’s Related Links page
should be used to prevent PEVs from colliding with (www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/related_links.html).
EVSE. However, accessibility issues must also be
considered when using these strategies.
Engineering and Construction
• Vandalism: Assess the risk of vandalism and mini-
mize risk through use of preventive strategies, such Because EVSE installations involve specialty equip-
as motion detectors, security lighting, tamper alarms, ment and electrical work—in addition to standard civil
and locked enclosures. engineering work—select well-qualified contractors
with experience in the relevant engineering and con-
• Signage: Use signs that can be seen over parked struction areas. The condition and location of existing
vehicles to designate PEV-only parking spaces. electrical equipment will determine the complexity
of the required electrical installations. If the exist-
• Accessibility: Evaluate and address requirements ing electrical system does not support the required
for complying with the Americans with Disabilities EVSE input voltage range, an isolation transformer
Act, as well as state, local, and organizational is required to step electricity down to Level 2 or up
accessibility policies. Compliance measures may to DC fast-charging voltage. To learn more about the
include adjusting connector and receptacle heights, types of considerations contractors must address, see
cutting curbs, and providing handicap-accessible the Clean Cities Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for
parking spaces. Electrical Contractors.
16 Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets

and striping, safety and accessibility measures, and

landscaping. You may want to work with your contrac-
tor to develop the plan.

Electric Rates

If your fleet must charge PEVs during peak electricity

demand periods, this may move you into a higher rate
category and result in higher electricity costs. Con-
versely, special reduced rate structures may be available
for fleets charging PEVs; you may need to purchase new
meters to take advantage of these rate structures. It is
important to research this issue carefully and discuss
with your utility the effects of charging on electric-
ity rates and loads. The advanced capabilities of some
EVSE products can be useful for optimizing load man-
Corporate fleets use PEVs to reduce fuel costs and agement, helping you maximize charging during low-
demonstrate their environmental commitments. rate periods and minimize it during high-rate periods.
Photo by Trish Cozart, NREL/PIX 19543
Installation Costs

Complying with Regulations EVSE installation costs vary considerably, so be sure

to do your homework and get a number of price quotes
EVSE installations must comply with local, state, and before moving forward. The City of Houston reported
national codes and regulations, and installation requires installation costs varying from $860 to $7,400 per unit,
a licensed contractor. Your contractor should know the not including the cost of the EVSE units themselves.5
relevant codes and standards and obtain approval from Factors affecting the cost (and installation time) include
the local building, fire, environmental, and electrical the number of circuits and EVSE units installed,
inspecting/permitting authorities before installing EVSE. indoor versus outdoor installation, required electrical
upgrades, required ventilation, and the use of DC fast
You can learn about codes and standards typically used charging EVSE. If required, trenching and adding elec-
for U.S. PEV and infrastructure projects on the AFDC’s trical service/panels incur the most cost.
Codes and Standards Resources page (www.afdc.energy.
gov/afdc/codes_standards.html). To determine which According to the Rocky Mountain Institute/Project
codes and standards apply to your fleet’s project, iden- Get Ready, the cost of a Level 2 EVSE unit, not includ-
tify those that are in effect within the local jurisdiction ing installation costs, is approximately $1,000 to $7,000
of the project—many jurisdictions have unique ordi- (before incentives) depending on the level of sophistica-
nances or regulations. tion.6 DC fast charging EVSE units are projected to cost
$20,000 to $50,000, but manufacturers are working to
Consult PEV manufacturer guidance for informa- decrease costs substantially.
tion about the required EVSE and learn the speci-
fications before purchasing equipment and electric Discounts and incentives can lower infrastructure costs.
services. Rocky Mountain Institute’s Project Get Your fleet may be eligible for incentives from the state,
Ready has more information about EVSE codes and city, or utility. To find current incentives, search the
standards (http://projectgetready.com/resources/other/
underwriters-labs-ev-standards). 5 See EVSE installation cost estimates on the Project Get Ready
website (http://projectgetready.com/resources/infrastructure/
In many areas, a site installation plan must be submit- charging-station-installation-costs).
ted to the permitting authority for approval before 6 From Rocky Mountain Institute. (2009). Plugging In: A Stakeholder
EVSE installation can proceed. A plan describes the Investment Guide for Public Electric-Vehicle Charging Infrastructure.
use and locations of elements, such as electrical system http://projectgetready.com/resources/infrastructure/plugging-
components, hazardous materials, EVSE, lighting, in-a-stakeholder-investment-guide-for-public-electric-vehicle-
vehicle and pedestrian traffic flow, ventilation, signage charging-infrastructure.
Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets 17

Alternative Fueling Station Locator

The AFDC’s Alternative Fueling Station
Locator (www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/
fuels/stations.html) helps fleet drivers
find charging stations along their routes
or near a specific location. Simply select
“Electric” from the list of fuels, enter
the location or route, and specify the
type of EVSE you’re looking for. The
locator generates a map of station loca-
tions and provides information for each
station, including operating hours, phone
numbers, and driving directions.
18 Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets

Fleets can play a major role in stimulating

the adoption of PEVs in the United States.
Photo from Richard Bogacz, New West
Technologies, NREL/PIX 19664

AFDC’s Federal and State Incentives and Laws database the deployment of public stations, including several
(www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/laws). As described in the projects supported by the U.S. Department of Energy.
PEV Benefits section, operating costs are lower for PEVs For more information, visit the AFDC’s Deployment
than for conventional vehicles, which also helps offset page (www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/electric_deploy-
EVSE costs. ment.html). To find charging stations near you, visit
the AFDC’s Alternative Fueling Station Locator (www.
EVSE Maintenance afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/stations.html), or access the
locator with a mobile device at www.afdc.energy.gov/
Typically, there are relatively few EVSE maintenance afdc/locator/m/stations.
requirements. In general, charging cords should be
securely stored so they are not damaged. Be sure to Most public charging will use Level 2 to enable charg-
check the accessible EVSE parts periodically for wear ing at locations where vehicles are highly concentrated,
and keep the system clean. See the EVSE manufac- such as shopping centers, city parking lots and garages,
turer’s guidelines for specific requirements. Periodic airports, hotels, government offices, and other busi-
inspection, testing, and preventive maintenance by a nesses. Today, many charging stations offer free charg-
qualified electrician may be recommended. ing to encourage early adopters of PEVs. However,
most public stations will evolve toward a pay-for-use
Charging in Public system as PEVs become more mainstream. A number
of payment models are being considered, all designed
Public charging stations make PEVs even more con- to make paying for charging simple and convenient. In
venient. They increase the useful range of EVs and the near future, drivers might subscribe to a charging
reduce the amount of gasoline or diesel consumed by service, swipe a credit card, enter a charging account
PHEVs. Although the current availability of public number, or even insert coins or bills to charge their
charging stations is limited, it is increasing rapidly. PEVs. In many cases, drivers may only be charged a
Publicly and privately funded projects are accelerating single fee for parking and charging.
Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Fleets 19

Choosing Electric
You now know the basics about PEVs, which should help
you decide if they are right for your fleet. In a time of volatile
petroleum prices and growing environmental concerns, PEVs
offer a way to reduce operating costs, demonstrate your
environmental responsibility, and comply with fleet policies.
What’s more, the number of available PEV models and the
public charging station network are expanding rapidly—
making PEVs a better choice every day. To keep up with
all the new developments, visit the AFDC (www.
afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/electric.html)
and FuelEconomy.gov (www.
fueleconomy.gov) frequently.

Illustration from iStock/15052491

Clean Cities Can Help

If you need assistance with your PEV projects,
contact your local Clean Cities coordinator by
visiting www.cleancities.energy.gov.
Clean Cities Technical Response Service
800-254-6735
technicalresponse@icfi.com

Prepared by the National Renewable Energy

Laboratory (NREL), a national laboratory of the
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy; operated by
the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC.

DOE/GO-102012-3273 • April 2012

Printed with a renewable-source ink on paper

containing at least 50% wastepaper, including 10%
post consumer waste.

Cover photos clockwise from right: from Pat Corkery,

NREL/PIX 18182, from Keith Wipke, NREL/PIX 19559, and
from Grand Haven Board of Light & Power, NREL/PIX 170893