Dr Richard Harrison

2.2 Quadratic equations & graphs of

quadratic functions
Core
Preparatory
Topics
1.1
1.2
2.1

2.2
2.3
3.1
5.1
5.2
5.3
9.1
10.1
11.1
11.5

FEPS Mathematics Support Framework

2.2 Introduction
The aim of this unit is to assist you in consolidating and developing your
knowledge and skills in working with quadratic equations, functions and
graphs of quadratic functions.

While studying these slides you should attempt the ‘Your Turn’ questions in
the slides.

After studying the slides, you should attempt the Consolidation Questions.

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2.2 Learning checklist
Learning Notes Tick when
resource complete

Slides

Your turn
questions

Consolidation
questions

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2.2 Learning objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to

2.2.1 Solve a quadratic equation by factorisation

2.2.2 Complete the square on a quadratic function
2.2.3 Solve a quadratic equation using the quadratic formula
2.2.4 Apply the quadratic discriminant in problem solving
2.2.5 Sketch the graph of a quadratic function
2.2.6 Solve a bi-quadratic equation
2.2.7 Interpret graphically the nature of the roots of a polynomial equation

#uniofsurrey 4
Solving quadratic equations

Quadratic equations are non-linear as they contain

an “𝑥2” term.

There are several ways of solving a quadratic but

the three ways we need to be familiar with are;

1. Factorisation
2. Completing the square
3. Using the quadratic formula
General form of quadratic equations

A quadratic equation has the general form

𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

The constants, 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are called coefficients, 𝑐 is

often called the “constant” term, 𝑎 and 𝑏 are
coefficients of 𝑥2 and 𝑥, respectively.

There may be one, two or three terms in a quadratic

equation but one of the terms must contain 𝑥2 for it to
be a quadratic.
2.2.1. Solve a quadratic equation by
factorisation
Example: Solving quadratic equations
by factorisation when 𝑎 = 1
Some other examples of factorisation
Factorising a general quadratic when 𝑎 ≠ 1

Is there a rule we can follow?

Factorise 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 15

Carry out your own investigation to find a

strategy to do this (trial and error is an
acceptable approach but there are other ways.)
2.2.2. Complete the square on a
quadratic function

Completing the square is a useful technique when the equation

cannot be factorised.

It also provides other useful information about the quadratic

graph, as we will see later in the lecture.

It involves rewriting the quadratic as,

𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑝(𝑥 + 𝑞)2 + 𝑟

Where 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟 are constants to be determined.
Example: Completing the square when
𝑎=1
Example: Completing the square when
𝑎1
Example: Completing the square when
𝑎  1, continued

Alternatively, you may find it easier to take the ‘2’ out as a factor

3 5
2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5 = 2(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − )
2 2

3 5
You can then complete the square on 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − and multiply the
2 2
result by 2.

Always a good idea to check your result is consistent with the original
expression as it’s easy to make arithmetical errors in this process!
Your turn!
Complete the square on 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1, writing your answer in the
form 𝑝(𝑥 + 𝑞)2 + 𝑟

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Solution

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1 = 𝑥 + 2 2
−4−1

2
= 𝑥+2 −5

#universityofsurrey 16
Extending to more variables…

The equation of a circle with centre (𝑎, 𝑏) and radius 𝑟 can be

written as,

𝑥−𝑎 2 + 𝑦−𝑏 2 = 𝑟2

#universityofsurrey 17
Example

Find the area of the circle given by the equation,

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 12 = 0
If we can find 𝑟 2
𝑥−𝑎 2 + 𝑦−𝑏 2 = 𝑟2 its easy to get the
area as it’s just
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 = 12

𝑥−2 2 −4+ 𝑦−3 2 − 9 = 12

𝑥−2 2 + 𝑦−3 2 = 25

∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 25𝜋 square units

#universityofsurrey 18
2.2.3. Solve a quadratic equation using
the quadratic formula
2.2.5. Sketch the graph of a
quadratic function
A graph of a function is a diagrammatic representation of
the function in a 2 dimensional plane.

It shows the behavior of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

Points on the “curve” have coordinates (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)).

Values on the horizontal axis (𝑥-axis) are the “inputs” to the

function. Usually called the domain. The domain may be
finite, infinite or made up of different intervals.
The 𝑦 values represent the “output” of the function. These
are called the range or codomain.

Each value of 𝑥 must have a corresponding value of 𝑦 =

𝑓(𝑥). If there is no value of 𝑦 for a given value of 𝑥, then we
must say the function is not defined for that value of 𝑥 and
exclude the particular value(s) of 𝑥 from the domain.

A good example is 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥. The domain is 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥 ≠ 0.

General form of quadratic functions

A quadratic function has the general form

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

The domain is usually 𝑥 ∈ ℝ unless specified otherwise

The quadratic discriminant, 𝑏2 – 4𝑎𝑐
The quadratic graph: Two real roots

The quadratic graph is a called a parabola

The quadratic graph: equal roots, 𝑥-axis is a
tangent to the curve at the vertex

Equal roots are The 𝑥-axis is a tangent

sometimes called double,
coincident or repeated
to the curve, at its
roots. There are still two vertex
roots but one is on top of
the other.
The quadratic graph: No real roots
Important properties of the quadratic
graph – vertex on axis of symmetry
Summary of important properties
Example: Sketching a quadratic graph
Example: Sketching a quadratic graph
Maximum (or minimum) points can also be found
by completing the square

It’s much quicker (and

easier) just to find the
axis of symmetry
Your turn!

Sketch the graph of

𝑦 = 𝑥2 – 5𝑥 + 6
Solution
𝑦 = 𝑥2 – 5𝑥 + 6
Intercept on 𝑦-axis: 𝑓 0 = 6
Roots (𝑥-intercepts): 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
𝑏 5
Axis of symmetry: − 2𝑎 = 2
5 5 1
𝑎 > 0 ∴ valley shape with minimum at 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑓 = −4
2

5 1
,− (0, 6)
2 4

(2, 0) (3, 0)
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2.2.6. Solve a bi-quadratic equation
Examples: bi-quadratic equation
Examples: bi-quadratic equation
Examples: bi-quadratic equation
Your turn!
Solve the biquadratic equation 4𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 2 + 3 = 0

#universityofsurrey 38
Solution

4𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 2 + 3 = 0
Substitute
𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 + 3 𝑡 = 2𝑥 2
𝑡−1 𝑡−3 =0
𝑥2 − 1 = 0
𝑥 = ±1
𝑥2 − 3 = 0
𝑥=± 3

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2.2.7. Interpret graphically the nature
of the roots of a polynomial equation

Polynomial: the general form of a polynomial

expression is the sum of terms,
_1
𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛 + … + 𝑎0.
The highest power, n is the degree or order of the
polynomial (it is also the dominant term). The
powers in each term are non-negative integers. 𝑎𝑛
is called the leading coefficient and 𝑎0 is a
constant.
Behaviour of polynomial graphs

Polynomials do not have any horizontal or vertical asymptotes.

We can consider how they behave at infinity though.
For example, f ( x) = x − 2 x + 5 tends to positive infinity as 𝑥 →
3 2

+ ∞ and 𝑓(𝑥) tends to negative infinity as 𝑥 → −∞.

We need only consider the behaviour of the highest order

(dominant) term and the sign of its coefficient. It should be
clear from the above example, if it were “ − 𝑥3”, then 𝑓(𝑥)
would tend to positive infinity as 𝑥 → −∞ and to negative
infinity as 𝑥 → +∞.

When the highest order term has a even exponent, e.g “𝑥4”,
then 𝑓(𝑥) will tend to positive infinity as 𝑥 → ± . Clearly, if it
were “ − 𝑥4”, then 𝑓(𝑥) will tend to negative infinity as 𝑥 → ± .
Illustration of polynomial graphs

Dominant term has an odd Dominant term has an even

exponent with, exponent with,

a positive coefficient e.g. 2𝑥7 a positive coefficient e.g. 3𝑥4

negative coefficient e.g. −2𝑥7 negative coefficient e.g −3𝑥4

Asymptotes and behavior “at infinity”

Asymptotes can be horizontal or vertical:

Certain types of function can cross over their horizontal
asymptotes.
5

4
y = e− x (3sin(6 x) + cos(6 x)) + 2
3

Horizontal
2
asymptote
1 𝑦 = 2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

-1

-2

-3
Roots of polynomials

A polynomial of degree 𝑛 has 𝑛 roots.

Some of the roots may be complex and these always occur in

complex conjugate pairs, the product of a complex conjugate
pair (when expressed as two linear factors of the polynomial) is
an irreducible quadratic (see complex conjugate root theorem).

A polynomial can be factored into all real factors such that the
factors are a combination of linear factors (and their powers, in
the case of repeated roots) and irreducible quadratics (more
about that in semester 2).
The cubic polynomial
Cubic functions can look like this too…
The quartic polynomial (4th order)
Your turn!
A 7th order polynomial equation has the form

𝑥 7 + 𝑔𝑥 6 + 𝑓𝑥 5 + 𝑒𝑥 4 + 𝑑𝑥 3 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎

Write down the possible combinations of real and complex roots

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Solution

Real Complex
5 2
3 4
1 6
7 0

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2.2 Summary
You should now be able to

2.2.1. Solve a quadratic equation by factorisation

2.2.2. Complete the square on a quadratic function
2.2.3. Solve a quadratic equation using the quadratic formula
2.2.4. Apply the quadratic discriminant in problem solving
2.2.5. Sketch the graph of a quadratic function
2.2.6. Solve a bi-quadratic equation
2.2.7. Interpret graphically the nature of the roots of a polynomial equation

#uniofsurrey 51
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