Lesson 9: Electric Fields

1 Introduction to Charges

1.1 Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons

All materials are made up of atoms. The structure of atoms can be described in
terms of three particles – the negatively charged electron, the positively charged
proton, and the neutral neutron. The protons and neutrons in an atom make up a
very small and dense core in the centre of the atom. Surrounding the nucleus are
electrons, more sparsely spaced around the atom.

The charges and masses of each of the particles are as follows (don’t worry about
memorising this, it’s given in the table of constants!):

Charge Mass
−19 −31
Electron −1.60 ×10 C 9.11× 10 kg
−19 −27
Proton 1.60 ×10 C 1.67 ×10 kg
−27
Neutron 0C 1.68 ×10 kg

The unit of charge is the Coulomb (C). Notice that an electron is exactly an opposite
charge of a proton. This means that if an atom has the same number of electrons
and protons, it has zero net charge and we call it neutral. If it has more protons than
electrons, it is positively charged, and if it has more electrons than protons, it is
negatively charged.

1.2 Conservation and Quantisation of Charge

There are two fundamental physical principles dealing with charge.

First, the conservation of charge states that charges cannot be created nor
destroyed (like mass, or energy). Hence, for any isolated system, the sum of all
electric charges must be constant.

Second, the quantisation of charge states that the electric charge is always an
integral multiple of the fundamental amount of charge e , equal to the charge of a
proton. Charges are therefore said to be quantised, i.e. any charge q must be equal
to Ne , where N is some integer.

Example:
Three identical metal balls A, B and C are mounted on insulating rods. Ball A has a
charge +Q and balls B and C are initially uncharged. Ball A is touched first to ball B,
and then separately to ball C. At the end of this experiment, what is the charge on
ball A?

Solution:
At first, A has +Q . After it is touched to B, the charge is distributed equally, so each
of A and B has +Q/2. After A is touched to C, the charge is again distributed equally
to the two, therefore the charge on A is finally +Q/ 4.

1.3 Coulomb’s Law

If two point charges q 1 and q 2 are a distance r apart, the charges exert forces on
each other of magnitude
1 |q 1||q2|
|F 1 on2|=|F 2 on1|= 4 π ε 2
0 r
where ε 0 is a constant called the permittivity of free space and is equal to 8.85 ×10−12
F/m.

Coulomb’s Law applies to point charges, i.e. an object which is extremely small
which has a charge (think: point mass). For practical purposes, two charged objects
can be modelled as point charges if they are much smaller than the separation
between them.

Take note that electrical charges can be superimposed. This means that the
resultant force on any one charge is equal to the vector sum of the forces exerted by
the other individual charges.

Example:
Two +10 nC charged particles are 2.0 cm apart on the x -axis. What is the net force
on a +1.0 nC charge midway between them? What is the net force if the charged
particle on the right is replaced by a -10 nC charge?

Solution:
The force between a +10 nC particle and a +1.0 nC particle 1.0 cm apart is
1 ( 10 × 10−9 ) ( 1 ×10−9 ) −4
=9.0 ×10 N
4 π ( 8.85 ×10 )
−12 2
( 0.01 )
Take not that this force is repulsive, i.e. they push each other away.

Similarly, the force between a -10 nC particle and a +1.0 nC particle 1.0 cm apart
has magnitude 9.0 ×10−4 N, but this time it is attractive, meaning that it is a force that
pulls the charges towards each other.
The net force in the first scenario is zero, by symmetry since there is a 9.0 ×10−4 N
force going to the left and to the right. On the other hand, the net force in the second
scenario comprises two 9.0 ×10−4 N forces going to the right, therefore the net force
is 1.8 ×10−3 N going to the right.
Example:
Three charged particles with q 1=−50 nC, q 2=+50 nC and q 3=+30 nC are placed on
the corners of the 5.0 cm ×10.0 cm rectangle shown below. What is the net force on
charge q 3 due to the other two charges?

Solution:
The force on charge q 3 due to q 1 is equal to
( 8.99× 109 ) ( 50 ×10−9 )( 30 × 10−9 ) −3
F 13= 2
=1.35 ×10 N downwards
( 0.1 )

The force on charge q 3 due to q 2 is equal to

( 8.99× 109 ) ( 50 ×10−9 )( 30× 109 ) −3
F 23= 2 2
=1.08 ×10 N diagonally up
( 0.1 ) + ( 0.05 )

Now we find the x and y -components of each of the forces. Suppose the force F 23
makes an angle θ with respect to the horizontal.

We may calculate the angle θ :

10 ∘
tan tan θ= ⇒ θ=63.4
5
Hence,
∘ −4
F x =F 23 cos cos 63.4 =4.84 × 10 N ¿ the ¿
∘ −4
F y =F 13−F 23 sin sin 63.4 =3.84 × 10 N downwards
The net force is thus
√❑
at a direction of

( )
−4
3.84 × 10 ∘
−4
=38.4 below the horizontal
4.84 × 10
2 Electric Fields

Recall that gravitational force is an action-at-a-distance force. In fact, for those of you
who have read further, the gravitational force between two masses is equal to
Gm 1 m2
F= 2
r
which takes a really similar form to Coulomb’s Law!

Similar to gravitational force, the electric force between charged objects is action-at-
a-distance. Suppose we have a charged object A. It modifies the space around it so
that any charged object B will experience a force due to A. Similarly, charged object
B will somehow modify the space around it, which causes A to experience a force
due to B.

To elaborate on the above, consider body A by itself: We remove B and label its
former position as point P. We say that the charged body A produces or causes an
electric field at point P (and at all other points in space).

This electric field is present at P even if there is no charge at P; it is a consequence

of the charge on body A only. If a charge q 0 is then placed at point P, it experiences
a force ⃗
F 0. Then we take the point of view that this force is exerted on q 0, by the field
at P.

Now how do we determine whether there is an electric field at a point? We may

place a small charged body, called a test charge, at point P. If the test charge
experiences an electric force, then there is an electric field at that point. This field is
produced by charges other than q 0.
The electric field ⃗E at a point is defined as the force ⃗F 0 experienced by a test charge
q 0 at the point, divided by the charge q 0. That is, the electric field at a certain point is
equal to the electric force per unit charge experienced by a charge at that point:
⃗
F0
⃗
E= .
q0

The units of electric field is N/C (sometimes also written as V/m).

E at a certain point is known, we can get the force ⃗

If the electric field ⃗ F 0 experienced
by a point charge q 0 placed at that point. This force is just equal to the electric field ⃗
E
produced at that point by charges other than q 0, multiplied by q 0:
⃗
F =q ⃗
E
This is the force experienced by a charge q placed in an electric field ⃗
E.

Let us now consider the electric field around a point charge. By using Coulomb’s
Law and the definition of the electric field strength, we can now quantitatively
describe the electric field around a point charge.

Consider an isolated point charge Q placed in free space. An electric field would be
set up by Q , in the space around it. If a small positive charge q is brought into the
space and is placed a distance r from Q , a force F is exerted by the field of Q on the
charge q .

The force experienced by q is equal to

1 qQ
F=
4 π ε0 r2

The magnitude of the electric field strength is thus

F 1 Q
E= = .
q 4 πε r 2

As for the direction of the electric field, if Q is positive, then a test charge +q would
experience a repulsive force, thus the electric field also points outwards. On the
other hand, if Q is negative, then a test charge +q would experience an attractive
force, thus the electric field also points inwards.
Take note that the principle of superposition applies to electric fields. That is, the
resultant electric field ⃗
Enet at a point P in an electric field is the vector sum at P due to
each point charge in the system.

Also, electric fields need not be generated from just point charges! There could be
two parallel plates each carrying opposite charges, which would generate a uniform
electric field between them.

Example:
The electron in a hydrogen atom orbits the proton at a radius of 0.053 nm.
(a) What is the proton’s electric field strength at the position of the electron?
(b) What is the magnitude of the electric force on the electron?

Solution:
(a) The proton’s electric field strength is

| |
9 −19
kQ 9 ×10 × 1.60× 10 11
2
= =5.1× 10 N /C
−9 2
r ( 0.053 ×10 )
(b) The magnitude of the electric force is equal to
F=qE=( 1.60 ×10−19) ( 5.1 ×1011 )=8.2 ×10−8 N

Example:
If we have three charges placed on the corners of a square of side length d as
shown below, what is the magnitude and direction of the electric field at the fourth
corner in terms of q and d ?
Solution:
The electric field from the two +q charges are kq /d 2 away from them while the
k ( 2q )
electric field from the −2 q charge is towards it. Therefore, the electric field can
( √❑ ) ❑
be seen to be pointing 45 ∘ downwards from the rightwards horizontal (i.e. directly
away from the −2 q charge), with a magnitude of

( kq
2 2 √❑
d ❑ )
2.1 Electric Field Lines

A useful tool to visualise electric fields is to draw straight or curved lines that follow
the direction of the electric field at every point in space.

These fields lines tell us two important properties of the electric field:
● Magnitude of the Electric Field.
The denser the lines, the stronger the field.

When the lines are close together, the electric field is strong, and where the lines
are far apart, the electric field is weak.
● Direction of the Electric Field.
The direction of the electric field at a point is determined by the tangent of the
field line at that point.

Here are the electric field lines between two charges of same magnitude, but with
same and different signs in the two figures.
3 Energy and Potential

Let us now take a look at the potential energy of a system of charges. The electric
potential energy U of a system of charges is defined as the work done by an external
agent to bring the charges from infinity to their respective positions in the system,
without producing any acceleration of the charges.

The formula for potential energy between two charges Q and q is

1 Qq
U=
4 π ε0 r

where:
U = potential energy (J)
Q and q = charges (C)
r = distance between charges (m)
−12
ε 0=8.85 ×10 F/m = permittivity of free space.

Take note that potential energy is a scalar, which means that it doesn’t have
direction.

The total potential energy of a system can be found by calculating the U for every
pair of charges and summing the terms algebraically.

We may apply the concept of electric potential energy in the conservation of energy.

Example:
A proton is fired from far away at 1.0 mm diameter glass sphere that has been
charged to +100 nC. What initial speed must the proton have to just reach the
surface of the glass?

Solution:
Using the conservation of energy, the final electric potential energy is equal to the
initial kinetic energy.
1 Qq 1 2
= mv
4 π ε0 r 2

v=√ ❑

Example:
Two large conducting plates separated by 6.36 mm carry charges of equal
magnitude and opposite sign, creating a uniform electric field with magnitude
3
2.80 ×10 N/C between the plates. An electron moves from the negatively charged
plate to the positively charged plate. How much work does the electric field do on the
electron?

Solution:
The work done is
F Δ x=qE Δ x= ( 1.60× 10−19 ) ( 2.80 ×103 ) ( 0.00636 )=2.85 ×10−18 J .
3.1 Electric Potential

The electric potential V at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done per
unit charge, by an external force, in moving a small positive charge from infinity to
that point in the electric field.
W U
V= =
q q
In other words, the relationship between potential and potential energy is similar to
the relationship between the electric field and electric force.

The SI units of potential is J/C, but it is more common to use the volt V.

The electric potential in the field by a point charge Q is given by

U 1 Q
V= = .
q 4 π ε0 r

Now what if we have multiple point charges, how do we determine the potential due
to these charges?

Since potential is a scalar, we just need to add the individual potentials up to obtain
the resultant potential.
V resultant =V 1 +V 2 +V 3 +…

Example:
A charge q 1=2.00 μC is located at the origin, and a charge q 2=−6.00 μC is located at
(0, 3.00) m, as shown below:
(a) Find the total electric potential due to these charges at the point P, whose
coordinates are (4.00, 0) m.
(b) Find the change in potential energy of a 3.00 μC charge as it moves from infinity
to point P.

Solution:
(a) The potential is equal to the sum of the potential due to each of the charges:
( 9.00 × 109 ) (−6.00 ×10−6 ) ( 9.00 × 109 ) ( 2.00 ×10−6 ) 3
V= + =−6.30 ×10 V
5 4
(b) The change in potential energy of a 3.00 μC charge as it moves from infinity to
point P is
(−6.30 × 103 V −0 V ) ( 3.00 ×10−6 C )=−1.89 ×10−2 J .

The work done by an external agent in moving a charge q from point A to point B in
an electric field (without changing the speed of the charge) is given by
W agent A → B=U B−U A =q ( V B −V A )

where V A and V B are the potentials at points A and B respectively.

Therefore, in the absence of external forces, if the particle is acted on only by the
electric field, then it loses a kinetic energy q ( V B−V A ).

Example:
A proton with speed 2.0 ×105 m/s enters a region of space in which source charges
have created an electric potential. What is the proton’s speed after it moves through
a potential difference of +100 V?

Solution:
The change in kinetic energy is equal to
−q Δ V =( 1.60 × 10−19 ) ( 100 )=1.60 ×10−17 J .
Therefore,
1 2 1 2 7
m v f − m v i =2.0 ×10 J
2 2
v f = √❑
3.2 Relationship Between Electrostatic Quantities

Here is a summary of the four basic quantities you will see in electrostatics:

r
2
r

Two charges Electric Force Electric Potential Energy

k q1 q 2 k q1 q2
F= 2
U=
r r

One charge Electric Field Electric Potential

k q1 k q1
E= 2
V=
r r

Let us examine the relationship between each of them.

The force due to a potential is

−dU
F=
dr
which means that the magnitude of the force is the gradient of the U vs r graph.
The direction of the force on the charge is given by the negative sign, i.e. the force
on the charge points towards a decreasing potential energy.

The relationship between potential and electric field strength is

−dV
E=
dr
which means that the magnitude of the field is the gradient of the V vs r graph.

Example:
The figure below is a graph of the electric potential V against x in a region of space
where ⃗E is parallel to the x -axis.
If a proton is placed at x=2 cm, which way will it move?

Solution:
dV
Since is negative, this means that E is towards the right, and the proton will
dr
move towards the right.

3.3 Equipotential Lines and Surfaces

Another way to represent the electric field in a region is through lines or surface of
equipotentials. That is, an equipotential surface is a surface in which every point on it
is at the same potential.

It is standard practice to draw these equipotential lines or surfaces the same number
of volts apart. Recall that the relationship between potential V and electric field
strength E is given by
⃗ −dV
E=
dr
Hence, from the equipotential line or surface, the electric field can be “visualised”.

In general:
● The magnitude of the electric field is given by E= |dVdr |. Hence, the closer the
equipotential lines or surfaces, the greater the change in potential for the same
distance and hence the stronger the electric field.
● The direction of the electric field points from higher potential to lower potential

● Furthermore, all points on equipotential surface have the same potential.

Therefore, there is no component of electric field along the equipotential surface,
and consequently electric field lines are always perpendicular to equipotential
surfaces.
 Equipotential lines for single charges

Equipotential lines and electric field lines between a positive and negative charge