11/03/2024

Atom Smallest divisible part of matter , which

consists of negatively charged electrons
revolving around a positively charged nucleus,
consists of protons and neutrons.

Elements Purest form of a substance

Compound Combination of two or more elements that are

chemically bonded.

Molecule Numbers of compound particles

Chemical Reaction Process in which two or more chemical

substances combine by rearranging their
chemical bonds

Reactants Substances that take part in chemical reactions

Products Results that are produced from a chemical

reaction.

Aim: To use the distinctive colors produced by metallic ions in a flame test and use the results to
identify an unknown metallic ion.

Metal Ion Color of Flame

Lithium Red

Strontium Red

Calcium Orange

Barium Yellow

Copper Green

Sodium Orange
13/03/2024
● Valency is defined as the number of hydrogen atoms which combine directly or indirectly
with one atom of an element.
● An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has an electric charge.
● A cation is a positively charged ion
● An anion is a negatively charged ion.

Describe the distribution and valency of elements in the periodic table.

The number of valence electrons is the same within a column and increases from left to right within
a row.
19/03/2024
Compound Types and Naming

1 atom of carbon

2 Atoms of Oxygen

1 molecule of carbon dioxide

● Electronegativity
● Sodium Chloride is easier to take one electron which mean sodium get one negative charge
● Chlorine has 7 electrons in its outermost shell therefore the sodium(which has one in its
outer shell) takes one electron from the chlorine to become an ionic compound.
● STP means standard temperature and pressure( Normal Temperature for it to exist. Also
includes atmospheric pressure.)
● Covalent compounds can exist in all 3 states of matter.
● Metals are shiny, ductile and brittle
 ● Metal point of ionic compounds is very high, the electrons have a connection because of the
positive and negative charge. To break the bond you need a lot of energy.
● Ionic bonds is the strongest because it has to opposite charged entities
● Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity
● Ionic bonds are formed when two atoms exchange electrons to create a positive and
negative ion.
● Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons to create a molecule.
● Metallic bonds are created when metal atoms lose their outermost electron to form
positively charged ions.

Covalent Compounds = A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of
electrons to form electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared pairs or
bonding pairs. The stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they share
electrons, is known as covalent bonding. Additionally a covalent compound is a molecule that is
formed when two or more different atoms are connected with a covalent bond. Covalent compounds
are basically the molecules that form when two different atoms form a covalent bond. They typically
have similar electronegativity and are non-metals.

Ionic Compounds = Ionic compound, any of a large group of chemical compounds consisting of
oppositely charged ions, wherein electron transfer, or ionic bonding, holds the atoms together.
Naming Compounds

➔ Sodium Chloride
➔ Sodium Hydroxide
➔ Potassium Nitrate
➔ Potassium Nitrite
➔ Carbon Monoxide
➔ Lead Sulfate
➔ Sodium Dioxide

Two ways
● Words
● Chemical formulas
 ● Compounds have constant composition with respect to mass because they are composed of
atoms in fixed ratios.
● A chemical formula indicates the elements present in a compound and the number of atoms
of each.

Ionic Compounds

● Composed of positive and negative ions.

● Usually formed from metal and non-metal.
● 3 types:
1. Simple (Binary) Ionic compounds
2. Compounds with transition metals
3. PolyAtomic Ionic compounds

● Binary means 2 elements

● Ionic means a metal and a non-metal (or cation and anion)

Writing Formulas from Names

● 1st word = CATION

● 2nd word = ANION name
with ide ending

A Compound is formed between potassium and iodine. Name the compound

Potassium Iodide , KI

The given elements are:

One atom of barium
Two atoms of chlorine

Barium Chloride
𝐵𝑎𝐶𝑙2
Rules For Naming Compounds
20/03/2024

DEAL
1. NaCl
2. HCl
3. NaOH
4. SrClx
5. NH3
6. H₂SO₄
7. PbCl₂
8. Na₂CO₃
9. Pb(NO₃)₂
10. CO
11. CaCO₃
Type of reaction General equation

Combination( synthesis) A+B→AB

Decomposition AB→A+B

Single Displacement A+BC→AC+B

Double Displacement AB+CD→AD+BC

Combustion 𝐶𝑥𝐻𝑦 + 𝑂2 −−> 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2𝑂

Combination (Synthesis)
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑙2(𝑔) −−> 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2(𝑠)
Decomposition
𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙(𝑠) −−> 𝑁𝐻3(𝑔) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔)
Single Displacement
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) −−> 𝐶𝑢(𝑠) + 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞)
Double Displacement
𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐾𝐵𝑟(𝑎𝑞) −−> 𝐴𝑔𝐵𝑟(𝑠) + 𝐾𝑁𝑂3(𝑎𝑞)
Combustion (Methane)
𝐶𝐻4(𝑔) + 2𝑂2(𝑔) −−> 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 2𝐻2𝑂(𝑔)
21/03/2024

Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

Endothermic reactions are chemical reactions in which the reactants absorb heat energy from the
surroundings to form products. An exothermic reaction is a reaction in which energy is released in
the form of light or heat. The energy is absorbed from the surrounding into the reaction.

Endothermic Reaction Example

Melting ice, evaporation, cooking, gas molecules, and photosynthesis are a few examples.

Exothermic Reaction Example

Rusting iron, settling, chemical bonds, explosions, and nuclear fission are a few examples.

● Exothermic Reaction are more common

● Endothermic Reaction takes in heat
● Exothermic releases heat

Problem: A sample of sodium hydroxide was dissolved in a test tube of water at 19 °C. The
temperature increased to 28 °C. A sample of potassium nitrate was dissolved in a test tube of water
at 20 °C. The final temperature was 11 °C. Determine the temperature change for each and state
which reaction was endothermic and which was exothermic.
Energy and Chemical Reactions

• Chemical Energy – Energy stored in the

chemical bonds of a substance.

• Chemical reactions always involve energy

changes.

• Making bonds and breaking bonds involve

energy changes

Activation Energy

• The energy required to break the bonds

in the reactants for a chemical reaction
to occur.

Endothermic and Exothermic reactions

Step 1: Energy must be

SUPPLIED to break
chemical bonds of
reactants:

Step 2: Energy is RELEASED

when new chemical bonds are
made in the products:

Energy is SUPPLIED than is RELEASED then the reaction is ENDOTHERMIC

Endothermic Reaction

REACTANTS + ENERGY PRODUCTS

OR

REACTANTS + HEAT PRODUCTS

Endothermic
6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy C6H12O6 + 6O2

Exothermic
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + Energy

Exothermic Reactions
REACTANTS PRODUCTS + ENERGY

OR

REACTANTS PRODUCTS + HEAT

27/03/2024

Law of conservation of mass

Law of conservation of mass states that, during any chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor
destroyed. Mass is conserved from reactants to products.

Who Discovered this Law?

● 1789, France
● Antoine Lavoisier
● Scientist
● Used one of the first analytical mass balances to prove this law.
● Executed on the guillotine during the French Revolution.
● He is known as the “Father of Chemistry” because he made it a quantitative science.
Therefore
𝑀𝐴𝑆𝑆𝑅𝐸𝐴𝐶𝑇𝐴𝑁𝑇𝑆 = 𝑀𝐴𝑆𝑆𝑃𝑅𝑂𝐷𝑈𝐶𝑇𝑆

● “→” means “gives”.

● Small numbers (subscripts) – tell how many of a particular type of atom are inside of a
molecule.
● Big numbers (coefficients) – tell how many of each particle is involved in the reaction.
2/04/2024
● Acid - a substance with particular chemical properties including turning litmus red,
neutralizing alkalis, and dissolving some metals; typically, a corrosive or sour-tasting liquid
of this kind.
+
● Acids have a high concentration of 𝐻 𝐼𝑜𝑛𝑠
● Acids are below 7 on the PH scale
● Bases have a PH scale value greater than 7
● The PH scale value of 7 is considered neutral
● Water has a PH scale value of 7
● Base - A base is a substance that can neutralize the acid by reacting with hydrogen ions.
Most bases are minerals that react with acids to form water and salts.
● The pH scale measures how acidic or alkaline a substance is.
−
● Chemical substances having a pH greater than 7, have a high concentration of 𝑂𝐻
3/04/2024

Radioactivity
● Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by
radiation. A material containing unstable nuclei is considered radioactive.
● When the atoms of an element have extra neutrons or protons it creates extra energy in the
nucleus and causes the atom to become unbalanced or unstable.
● Three of the most common types of decay are alpha, beta, and gamma decay.
● Alpha decay is a nuclear decay process where an unstable nucleus changes to another
element by shooting out a particle composed of two protons and two neutrons
● Beta Decay is a type of radioactive decay in which a proton is transformed into a neutron or
vice versa inside the nucleus of the radioactive sample.
● Gamma decay, a type of radioactivity in which some unstable atomic nuclei dissipate excess
energy by a spontaneous electromagnetic process.

Photosynthesis
● Sunlight provides the energy needed for photosynthesis to take place.
● In this process carbon dioxide and water are converted into oxygen (a waste product that is
released back into the air) and glucose (the source of energy for the plant).
● Plantsgo under photosynthesis to make their food, they use cellular respiration the energy
from food to power the growth.
● Cellular respiration is the process in which cells break down molecules for energy in the
form of ATP molecules.
● The cells use that oxygen that you breathe in and produce carbon dioxide that you breathe
out.
● It is an exothermic reaction since it releases energy
● Respiration can be thought of as a combustion of glucose (without flames). It is very slow
compared to other combustion reactions.
● Aerobic respiration is the process by which oxygen-breathing creatures turn fuel, such as
fats and sugars, into energy.
● Anaerobic respiration transfers energy from glucose to cells.
● It occurs when oxygen is not present.
● It transfers large amounts of energy quickly.
8/04/2024

Precipitation Reactions
● A precipitation reaction refers to the formation of an insoluble salt when two solutions
containing soluble salts are combined.
● The insoluble salt formed is known as the precipitate, hence the reaction’s name.
● Precipitation reactions occur when cations and anions in aqueous solution combine.
● When the two separate solutions of two soluble salts are mixed, ion pairings are swapped,
and one or more insoluble salts are produced.
● The swapping of ions in the compounds is called displacement.
● The solids produced in precipitate reactions are crystalline solids, and can be suspended
throughout the liquid or fall to the bottom of the solution.
● The remaining fluid is called supernatant liquid.
● The precipitate and supernatant can be separated by various methods, such as filtration,
centrifuging, or decanting.
● A solubility table is used to determine if the products are soluble or insoluble.
● If they are insoluble they will be the precipitate.

Decomposition Reactions
● Decomposition reactions are chemical reactions in which a more complex molecule breaks
down to make simpler ones.
● The reaction can be generalized as: AB -> A + B
● It is the opposite of synthesis reactions, where simpler reactants combine to form a more
complex product.
● If a reaction has only one reactant, it is a decomposition reaction. A decomposition reaction
is a type of chemical reaction in which one reactant yields two or more products.
● Most decomposition reactions are endothermic, since energy, either in the form of heat,
electric current, or sunlight must be provided in order to break the bonds of the more
complex molecule.

The three types of decomposition reactions

1. Thermal decomposition reactions - energy in the form of heat is required to break the bonds
of the more complex molecule.
2. Electrolytic decomposition reactions - such reactions occur when an electric current is
passed through an aqueous solution of a compound.
3. Photo decomposition - these reactions occur in the presence of light (photons)
Video Links
(Some of this stuff covers Yr11 Chemistry so, just do what it in our course)
How To Name Ionic Compounds With Transition Metals - ✅
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eM5mDnQX0k8

Writing Ionic Formulas - Basic Introduction - ✅

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jJUO0Vqd3QE

How To Name Acids - The Fast & Easy Way! - ✅

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VhgpkmAaiAk

Writing Chemical Formulas For Ionic Compounds - ✅

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GJ4Mds0CWLE

How To Name Ionic Compounds With Transition Metals - ✅

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eM5mDnQX0k8

How To Write Ionic Formulas With Polyatomic Ions - ✅

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=stu2omPRvbs

Types of Chemical Reaction (Decomposition) - ✅

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1IG7t3kheGk

Precipitation Reactions - ✅
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=leCoWeIN-h8
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions - ✅
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JRIm_a2LDPM

Alpha Particles, Beta Particles, Gamma Rays, Positrons, Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons -

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cPRFF-eCGT8

Acids and Bases - Basic Introduction - Chemistry - ✅

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FM2MpMbV0rw
Charges within the Periodic Table

- Column 1 = +1 Charge.
- Column 2= +2 Charge.
- Column 3 = +3 Charge.
- Column 18 = 0 Charge.
- The rest you will either have to remember or it will specify in certain questions in the test
with roman numerals in brackets for example like = Iron (II) having at +2 charge in this
case.
- Protons - Neutrons = Valency of Element.

Extra Test Revision

Have an example of each of the following and definition =
1) Decomposition Reaction: A decomposition reaction is a reaction in which a compound
breaks down into two or more simpler substances. The general form of a decomposition
reaction is: AB→A+B. Most decomposition reactions require an input of energy in the form
of heat, light, or electricity.
Examples =
Examples of decomposition reactions include the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to water
and oxygen, and the breakdown of water to hydrogen and oxygen.
 2) Precipitation Reaction: Precipitation reactions occur when cations and anions in aqueous
solution combine to form an insoluble ionic solid called a precipitate. Whether or not such a
reaction occurs can be determined by using the solubility rules for common ionic solids.
Examples =
1) 2KI(aq)+Pb(NO3)2(aq)→PbI2(s)+2KNO3(aq)
2) Pb2+(aq)+2I−(aq)→PbI2(s)
3) NaF(aq)+AgNO3(aq)→AgF(s)+NaNO3(aq)(molecular)
3) Acid Reaction: Examples =
acid + metal → salt + hydrogen.
acid + base → salt + water.
acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide.
acid + hydrogen carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide.
acid + ammonia → ammonium salt.
3 Main Acids in Tests =
Hydrochloric Acid, Sulphuric Acid and Nitric Acid.
4) Single Displacement Reaction: A single replacement reaction, sometimes called a single
displacement reaction, is a reaction in which one element is substituted for another element
in a compound. Examples =
1. Mg ( s ) + Cu(NO 3 ) 2 ( a q ) → Mg(NO 3 ) 2 ( a q ) + Cu ( s )
2. Al ( s ) + Fe 2 O 3 ( s ) ⟶ Δ Al 2 O 3 ( s ) + Fe ( s )
3. Zn ( s ) + 2 HCl ( a q ) → ZnCl 2 ( a q ) + H 2 ( g )
4. 2 Na ( s ) + 2 H 2 O ( l ) → 2 NaOH ( a q ) + H 2 ( g )
5) Double Displacement Reaction: A double displacement is a reaction in which the positive
and negative ions of two ionic compounds exchange places to form two new compounds.
The double-displacement reaction generally takes the form of AB + CD → AD + CB where A
and C are positively-charged cations, while B and D are negatively-charged anions. Examples
=
1) Sodium oxide reacts with silver acetate.
2) Silver nitrate reacts with magnesium chloride.
3) Potassium carbonate reacts with ammonium iodide.
4) Cesium sulphide reacts with sodium hydroxide.
5) Sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid.
1) Na2 O + 2AgC2 H3 O2 ⟶ 2NaC2 H3 O2 + Ag2O.
6) Combustion Reaction: A combustion reaction is a kind of chemical reaction in which a
reaction between any combustible substance and an oxidiser takes place in order to form an
oxidised product. Combustion reactions are often accompanied by fires and the release of
energy in the form of heat. Examples:
1. Burning any kind of Wood or Coal to heat your home.
2. Cars and buses burn petrol or diesel to run.
3. Natural Gas or LPG is in use on your stovetop.
4. For the production of energy in thermal power plants.
5. Fireworks.
6. Combustion of butane (commonly found in lighters).