I

A TEXTBOOK OF
Civil Engineering Materials

ENGR. DR. SAJJAD ALI MANGI

PROF. ENGR. DR. ABDUL SAMI QURESHI

DR. MUHAMMAD IKHSAN SETIAWAN

PUBLISHER:
PERKUMPULAN INTERNASIONAL PENELITI EKONOMI, SOSIAL DAN TEKNOLOGI
JAKARTA, INDONESIA
WWW.IPEST.ASIA
II
 A TEXTBOOK OF
Civil Engineering Materials

Edited by:

Engr. Dr. Sajjad Ali Mangi

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology,
SZAB Campus Khairpur Mirs, Sindh, Pakistan
Corresponding: Sajjad.nec@muetkhp.edu.pk

Prof. Engr. Dr. Abdul Sami Qureshi

Pro Vice Chancellor
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology
SZAB Campus Khairpur Mir’s, Sindh, Pakistan

Dr. Muhammad Ikhsan Setiawan

Faculty of Engineering
Narotama University,
Surabaya, Indonesia

PUBLISHER:
CONTENTS
PERKUMPULAN INTERNASIONAL PENELITI EKONOMI, SOSIAL DAN TEKNOLOGI
JAKARTA, INDONESIA
WWW.IPEST.ASIA
III
 PREFACE
This textbook presents the basic introduction of Civil Engineering Materials used in the construction
to provide and maintain the infrastructure needs of the society. The infrastructure includes buildings,
dams, and highway and airport, bridges, and pavements. Although some civil and construction
engineers are involved in the planning process, most are concerned with the design, construction, and
maintenance of facilities. The common denominator among these responsibilities is the need to
understand the behavior and performance of materials. Although not all civil and construction
engineers need to be material specialists, a basic knowledge of the material selection process, and the
behavior of materials, is a fundamental requirement for all civil and construction engineers
performing design, construction, and maintenance. The material requirements in civil engineering
and construction facilities are different from material requirements in other engineering disciplines.
Frequently, civil engineering structures require massive quantity of materials with relatively low
replications of designs. Generally, the materials used in civil engineering have relatively low unit
costs. In many cases, civil engineering structures are formed or fabricated in the field under adverse
conditions. This book contains thirteen chapters which covered fundamental topics like stone,
cement, aggregate, bricks, mortar, concrete, timber, glass, steel, pipes & fittings, paints, varnishes &
distempers, tiles, and acoustic materials. The literature used in this book i.e., pictures/graphs/text,
etc. is solely intended for educational purpose and may include copyrighted material - the use of
which may not have been specifically authorized by copyright owners. Its application constitutes fair
use of any such copyrighted material as provided in globally accepted law of many countries. The
contents of book are intended only for the readers to understand and get basic knowledge about Civil
Engineering Materials.
The editors would like to acknowledge the support of Mehran University of Engineering and
Technology, Shaheed Z.A Bhutto Campus Khairpur Mir’s, Pakistan. Last but not the least, I would
like to thanks to my parents, my wife, my kids, siblings and friends for their love, support, and
encouragement during the preparation of this book.

Engr. Dr. Sajjad Ali Mangi

IV
 CONTENTS

PREFACE ............................................................................................................ IV

CONTENTS ..........................................................................................................V

1. STONES ...................................................................................................... 1
2. CEMENT .................................................................................................... 5
3. AGGREGATE ...........................................................................................11
4. BRICKS ......................................................................................................14
5. MORTAR ...................................................................................................17
6. CONCRETE ...............................................................................................21
7. TIMBER .....................................................................................................26
8. GLASS ........................................................................................................31
9. STEEL ........................................................................................................38
10. PIPES AND FITTINGS ............................................................................44
11. PAINTS, VARNISHES AND DISTEMPERS .........................................48
12. TILES ........................................................................................................49
13. ACOUSTIC MATERIALS........................................................................52

REFERENCES ................................................................................................55

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUIZ ..............................................................................56

V
 CHAPTER 1

STONES
Building stone
Stone is natural and hard substance formed from minerals and earth materials which are present in
rock. Stone is Most abundant material on earth which is Known to man for construction from early
age. They can be used directly except sizing and dressing before putting in structure.
Uses of stones:
i. Stone Can be used in the construction of buildings, retaining walls, bridges, and other structures
and includes building components such as walls, bridges, foundations, sills, chimneys, and
steps.
ii. Crushed varieties of stones are used in making of concrete, road material, railway ballast etc.
iii. Stone can be used in construction of foundations of residential and public buildings.
iv. Hard stones are used for construction of dams, weirs, harbors, bridge, abutments, etc.
v. Stone can be used as Face work of structures for appearance and ornamental value.
vi. Stone dust as substitute of sand
vii. Thin slabs of Stone can be used for roofing, flooring, and pavements.
viii. Limestone for manufacture of lime, cement, etc.
Classification of stones
Stones are classified into three main different types:
i. Geographically
ii. Chemically
iii. Physically
Geographic Types of Stones
According to geographically, we divide it into three main types.
Sedimentary rocks (Aqueous or Stratified rocks)
These rocks get their name from the Latin word “sedimentum” which means settle down. As these
rocks are formed by the settling down of sediments. Sediments are the smaller particles / fragments
that are formed by the breaking down of rocks when they roll down, crack, and hit each other. These
sediments are transported by wind, water etc. and when these sediments compressed and hardened
form sedimentary rocks. E.g.: Lime stones sandstones, shale, slit stone.
Igneous rocks
The word igneous is derived from the Latin word Ignis which means fire.

1
 Igneous rocks are given names based upon two things: composition (what they are made of) and
texture (how big the crystals are)
The rocks formed by the solidification of hot molten rock called magma or lava. It is first rock to be
formed also called primary rock. The hot molten rock material starts ascending from interior of earth
may or may not reach to the ground surface igneous rocks are formed.
Depending on where the molten magma cools, they are of the following types:
• Intrusive Rocks
• Extrusive Rocks

Intrusive igneous rock Extrusive igneous rocks

When the molten magma cools deep inside the When the molten magma (lava) comes on the earth’s
earth’s crust, intrusive igneous rocks are surface.
formed.
Cool down slowly It rapidly cools down and becomes solid.
Form large grains They have a very fine-grained structure.
E.g., Granite etc. E.g., Basalt etc.

Metamorphic rocks
The Greek word ‘metamorphose’ which means change of form, is the root of the word metamorphic.
In other words, these are the rocks that are formed when the igneous and sedimentary rocks change
their form under the following two circumstances:

Great heat and Great pressure

Example: Slate: Clay becomes slate after metamorphosis 2. Marble: Limestone becomes marble
after metamorphosis

Physical classification

1. Stratified Rocks: These rocks are having layered structure. They possess planes of Stratification or
cleavage. They can be easily split along these planes. Sand stones, lime stones, slate etc. are the
examples of this class of stones.
2. Un Stratified Rocks: These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and compact grains.
They cannot be split into thin slab. Granite, trap, marble etc. are the examples of this type of rocks.

2
3. Foliated Rocks: These rocks tend to split along a definite direction only. The direction need not be
parallel to each other as in case of stratified rocks. This type of structure is very common in case of
metamorphic rocks.
Chemical classification:
1. Silicious rocks: The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable. Examples of
such rocks are granite, trap, sand stones etc.
2. Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay. These stones are hard
and durable, but they are brittle. They cannot withstand shock. Slates and laterites are examples of
this type of rocks.
3. Calcareous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate. Limestone is a calcareous
rock of sedimentary origin while marble is a calcareous rock of metamorphic origin.

Characteristics of good building stone

• Appearance: For face work it should have fine, compact texture; light-colored stone is preferred as
dark colors are likely to fade out in due course of time.

• Structure: A broken stone should not be dull and should have uniform texture free from cavities,
cracks, and patches of loose or soft material. Stratifications should not be visible to naked eye.

• Strength: A stone should be strong and durable to withstand the disintegrating action of weather.
Compressive strength of building stones in practice range between 60 to 200 N/mm 2.

• Weight: It is an indication of the porosity and density. For stability of structures such as dams.
Retaining walls, etc. heavier stones are required, whereas for arches, vaults, domes, etc. light stones
may be the choice.

• Hardness: This property is important for floors, pavements, aprons of bridges, etc. The hardness is
determined by the Mohs scale.

• Toughness: The measure of impact that a stone can withstand is defined as toughness. The stone
used should be tough when vibratory or moving loads are anticipated.
 Porosity and Absorption: Porosity depends on the mineral constituents, cooling time and structural
formation. A porous stone disintegrates as the absorbed rainwater freezes, expands, and causes cracking.
Permissible water absorption for some of the stones is given in Table 1.

Type of Stone Maximum limit of

Water Absorption (%)
Sandstone 10
Limestone 10

3
 Granite 1
Shale 10
Slate 1
Quartzite 3

Seasoning: The stone should be well seasoned.

Weathering: The resistance of stone against the wear and tear due to natural agencies should be
high.
Workability: Stone should be workable so that cutting, dressing, and bringing it out in the required
shape and size may not be uneconomical.
Fire Resistance: Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron, and minerals having
different coefficients of thermal expansion. Igneous rock show marked disintegration principally
because of quartz which disintegrates into small particles at a temperature of about 575 oC.
Limestone, however, can withstand a little higher temperature, i.e., up to 800 oC after which they
disintegrate.
Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of most of the stones lies between 2.3 to 2.5.
Thermal Movement: Thermal movements alone are usually not trouble-some. However, joints in
coping and parapets open-out in letting the rainwater causing trouble. Marble slabs show a distinct
distortion when subjected to heat. An exposure of one side of marble slab to heat may cause that side
to expand and the slab warps. On cooling, the slab does not go back to its original shape.
Artificial stone
A material containing stone chips and cement, mortar, or plaster that is seasoned for several months,
then polished for a finish that simulates stone is called artificial stone. Artificial marble-can be either
precast or cast in situ. These are made from Portland gypsum cement and sand. Artificial stone could
be made more cheaply and more uniform than natural stone and was widely used. The artificial stone
is a name for various kinds of synthetic stone products used from the 18th century onward. Artificial
stone were used in building construction, civil engineering work, and industrial uses such as
grindstones. Concrete block-are cast in the construction of piers or cast in moulds for steps, window
sills, etc.

In engineering projects, it had the advantage that transporting the bulk materials and casting them
near the place of use was cheaper than transporting very large pieces of stone. Modern Cast stone is
an architectural concrete building unit manufactured to simulate natural cut stone, used in unit
masonry applications. Victoria stone-are granite pieces with the surface hardened by keeping
immersed in soda silicate for about two months.

4
 CHAPTER 2

CEMENT
The word cement is derived from the Latin word ‘caementum’ which means rough-cut stone.
Generally, cement is a material that has cohesive and adhesive properties which enables it to bond
with mineral fragments into a solute mass (simply can be said binder). Although this definition can
be applied to many materials but the cement of interest for reinforced concrete construction are those
of that can be set and harden in presence of water so called hydraulic cement.

History of cement

Lime and clay have been used as cementing material on constructions through many centuries.
Romans are commonly given the credit for the development of hydraulic cement; the most
significant incorporation of the Roman’s was the use of pozzolana-lime cement by mixing volcanic
ash from the Vitruvius with lime. Best known surviving example is the Pantheon in Rome.

In 1824 Joseph Aspdin from England invented the Portland cement by heating a mixture of
limestone and fine clay expelling carbonic acid gas. Issac C.Johnson in 1845 invented cement by
burning limestone and clay to form clinker.

Uses of cement:

i. In construction of commercial and business centers, sites, residences, hotels, hospitals,

and school buildings etc.,
ii. In sewerage, underground construction, and network systems,
iii. In construction of water structures such as dams, water drainage channels, flumes, etc.,
iv. In construction of seaports, harbors, marinas, breakwaters, and similar sea structures,
v. In construction of projects for tunnels, bridges, viaducts, and highways, • In construction
of concrete roads

Types of cement: According to ASTM C150 types of Portland cement are:

Types Usage
I Used in ordinary construction where special qualities are not required
II Used in ordinary construction where moderate sulphate resistance or moderate
Heat of hydration is requires
III Used when high early strength is required
IV Used in ordinary construction where low Heat of hydration is desired
V It is used when High sulphate resistance is required

5
General Note: There are some standards used in different countries and worldwide. some
examples are given below:
PSQCA: Pakistan Standard and Quality Control Authority
ASTM: American Society for Testing Material
AASHTO: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
BS: British Standard
Testing of cement:

These are some tests for cement quality to be used in construction.

 Fineness Test.
 Consistency Test.
 Soundness Test
 Tensile strength
 Compressive strength

Fineness Test: Finer the grains more is the surface area and faster the development of strength. The
fineness of cement can be determined by Sieve Test or Air Permeability test. The percentage of
residue after sieving should not exceed 10%.

Consistency and setting time test: This test is conducted to determine the percentage of water
required for preparing cement paste of standard consistency. This test can be done with help of
Vicat’s apparatus which determine the initial and final setting time and normal consistency of
cement. The initial setting time of OPC and RHC is about 30 minutes and final setting time is about
10 hours. The normal consistency of OPC is about 25%.

Soundness test: This test is carried out to detect the percentage of uncombined lime and magnesia in
cement which causes expansion of cement. This test is done through le chatler’s apparatus.
According to standards the expansion should not exceed 10mm for any type of Portland cement.

Tensile Strength: This test is done on standard Briquettes made up of OPC and standard sand water
1:3. Average tensile strength after two days is 2 N/mm2 and after 7 days 2.5 N/mm2.

Compressive Strength: This test is carried out on standard cubes made up of OPC and standard
sand, water 1:3 (50 by 50 mm). According to standards the average strength of three cubes should
not be less than 11.5 N/mm2 and 17.5 N/mm2 after three and seven days of curing, respectively.

6
 Chemical composition of Cement

Oxides Range (%) Functions

Lime (CaO) 60 to 67% Control strength and
soundness
Silica (SiO2) 17 to 25% Gives strength. Excess
causes slow setting
Alumina (Al2O3) 3 to 8% Quick setting. Excess lower
strength
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5 to 6% Colour, helps in fusion of
different ingredients
Magnesia (MgO) 0.1 to 4% Color and hardness. Excess
causes cracking
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 1 to 3% Makes cement sound
Soda and/or Potash (Na2O+K2O) 0.5 to 1.3% residues, excess cause
cracking

Function of ingredient of cement

Lime (CaO):
This is important ingredient of cement, and its proportion is to be carefully maintained. The lime in
excess makes the cement unsound and causes the cement to expand and disintegrate. On the other
hand if lime is in deficiency, the strength of cement decreases and it causes cement to set quickly
Silica (SiO2)
This is also an important ingredient of cement and it gives or imparts strength to cement due to the
formation of dicalcium silicates (2CaO.SiO2) and tricalcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2). If silica is present
in excess quantity, the strength of cement increases but at the same time, its setting time is
prolonged.
Alumina (Al2O3)
This ingredient imparts quick setting property to the cement. It acts as a flux and it lowers the
clinkering temperature. It should not be present in excess amount as it weakens the strength of
cement.
Iron oxide (Fe2O3)
This ingredient imparts color, hardness, and strength to the cement. In manufacturing of cement it
helps in fusion of raw materials.
Magnesia (MgO)
This ingredient, if present in small amount, imparts hardness and color to the cement. High content
of magnesia makes the cement unsound.
Sulphur trioxide (SO3)

7
A very small amount of sulphur is useful in making sound cement. If it is in excess, it causes cement
to become unsound.
Alkalis
Most of the alkalis present in raw materials are carried away by the flue gases during heating.

Composition

The main constituents of cement are tricalcium silicate dicalcium silicate and tricalcium aluminates.
After addition of water to cement it sets and hardens due to hydration and hydrolysis of above three
compounds which act as glue. As such the initial setting of cement is due to action of aluminate.
further early gain in strength due to trisilicate. All three compounds in their action with water give
out heat. The silicates form a gel with water. The gel fills pores of cement there by making it
imperious. the gel later crystallizes and firmly binds the particles.

Manufacturing of cement

There are two types of processes to produce cement, namely dry process of cement manufacturing as
shown in Fig 1 and the wet process of cement manufacturing is provided in Fig 2.
In this process, the raw materials are first reduced in size of about 25 mm in crushers. A current of
dry air is then pass over these dry materials. These dry materials are then pulverized into fine powder
ball mills and tube mills. All these operations are do separately for each raw material and they are
store in hoppers. They are then mix in correct proportions and make ready for the feed of rotary kiln.
This finely ground powder of raw materials is referring as the raw mix, and it is store in storage tank.
In the earlier part of the century i.e., from 1913 to 1960, the wet process was used for the
manufacture of cement. From 1913 onwards, the cement industry underwent several changes mainly
to suit the requirements of the manufactures and the govt. policies till early 1982.
All the cement plants set up after 1980 use the dry process for the manufactures of cement. But the
method of preparing the wet process.

8
Figure 1. Dry process flow diagram of cement manufacturing

9
Figure 2. Wet process flow diagram of cement manufacturing

10
 CHAPTER 3

AGGREGATE

Aggregate is an inert material used to manufacturing or production of mortar and concrete.

According to standards, a good aggregate for concrete should be sufficiently strong, chemically inert,
sufficiently hard, and durable.

Aggregate may be natural and artificial:

 The natural aggregate such as sand, gravel and crushed stone are used for RCC works.
 The artificial aggregate such as furnace, clinker, saw dust, foamed slag and coal bottom ash
are used for manufacturing of concrete of low density.

Aggregates according to their size, shape and unit weight are classified as following:

Aggregates according to their Size

Fine Aggregate: The aggregate which passes through 7.5 mm and retain on 7.5 um and 0.045 mm
known as fine aggregate. It maybe natural sand, crushed stone sand or crushed gravel sand. The
minimum particle size of fine aggregate is 0.075mm and the maximum size is 4.75 mm.

Coarse Aggregate: The aggregate which passes through 75 mm sieve and retain on 4.75 mm sieve is
known as coarse aggregate. It may be crushed. Uncrushed or partially crushed gravel or stone. The
minimum particle size of coarse aggregate is 4.75 mm and maximum 75mm. However, the
maximum size of coarse aggregate should not exceed 1/4 th of minimum dimension of plain concrete
(PCC) member and 1/5th of minimum dimension of reinforced concrete (RC) member. The
aggregates are said to be flaky when its least dimension (thickness) is 3/5 th of its mean dimension, the
mean dimension of aggregate is the average size through which it passes or retain, respectively.
Aggregate is said to be elongated when its greater dimension (length) is greater than 1.8 times of its
mean dimension.

Aggregates according to their Unit Weight:

These are classified as:

1. Lighter Aggregate.
2. Heavy Aggregate.
3. Normal Aggregate.

Aggregate according to Moisture Content:

11
These are classified as:

Dry Aggregate: The aggregates that contain some moisture in pores but having dry surface is known
as Dry Aggregate.

Very Dry Aggregate: The aggregates that do not contain any moisture either in pores or in surface is
known as Very Dry Aggregate.

Saturated Surface Dry Aggregate: The aggregates having all the pores filled with water but having
surface just dry Known as Saturated Surface Dry Aggregate.

Moist Aggregate: The aggregates in which all the pores filled with water and having wet surface are
known as Moist Aggregate.

Properties ff Aggregates

Crushing Value: It is the resistance of an aggregate to cruising under gradually applied compressive
force.

Impact Value: it is resistance if an aggregate to sudden shock or impact. It is sometimes used as an

alternative to crushing value to know the quality of aggregate.

Aberration Value: It is resistance of an aggregate to wear when rotated in a cylinder along with
some abrasive charge. This test is done by Loss angel’s machine.

Soundness: It is a resistance of an aggregate to effect hydration if cement and weather effect.

Specific Gravity and Bulk Density of an Aggregate: Since aggregates generally contain pores,
therefore there are two types of specific gravity i.e., spent specific gravity and bulk specific gravity.

Apparent Specific Gravity:

Apparent specific gravity is defined the weight of own dry aggregate divided by the absolute volume
excluding the natural pores in aggregate particles.

Bulk Specific Gravity:

Bulk specific gravity is defined the weight of own dry aggregate divided by the absolute volume
including the natural pores in aggregate particles.

12
Specific gravity is required for the calculation of yield concrete, or the quality of aggregate required
for a given volume of concrete. The specific gravity gives the valuable quality and property if
aggregate.

NOTE: The higher specific gravity aggregates the harder and stronger it will be. The specific gravity
if majority of aggregate lies between 2.6 to 2.7.

Bulk Density: Bulk density of aggregates defined as the mass required to fill the container of Unit
volume. It is expressed in kg/liter, kg/l, kg/m3, kg/ft3.

The bulk density of and aggregate depends Upon this size, Shape, Specific gravity, Grading of
aggregate and moisture content.

Bulking of Sand: The increase in volume of sand due to pressure of moisture Upon certain
extent Is called bulking of sand.

The ratio of volume of moist sand to the volume of dry sand is known as Bulking Factor (BF).

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑

BF =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑

It may be noted that fine sand bulls more than the coarse sand.

Deleterious Materials in Aggregate:

Those whose pressure in aggregate present in normal hydration of cement, reduces the strength and
durability of concrete, modify the setting action, and cause the efflorescence. The sum of percentage
of all deleterious material in aggregate shall not proceed by 5 percent.

Fineness Modulus: It is numerical index of fineness give the index about average particle sizes in
the aggregate the value of fineness modulus is higher for coarse aggregate. For fine aggregate, its
value is 2.2 to 2.6 and foe coarse aggregate its value varies from 2.9 to 3.2. It may be noted that
fineness should not be less than 2.5 and not more than 3. The percentage of fine aggregate to be
combined with coarse aggregate(x) is determined by following formula.

𝐹2−𝐹
x = 𝐹−𝐹1 ∗ 100

F = fineness modulus according to specific gravity.

F1 = FM of FA and F2 = FM OF CA

13
 CHAPTER 4

BRICKS

Brick is the block of tampered clay which is moulded to a particular shape. Its most used building
material, used for the construction of walls, columns, roof, paving floors etc. The Standard size of
brick of a brick is 190mm x 90mm x 90mm as shown in Fig 3.

Figure 3. Standard size of brick

Components of Brick: A good brick contains:

i. Silica 50-60%
ii. Alumina 20-30%
iii. Other’s magnesia, sodium, potassium, manganese& iron oxide.

It may be noted that:

 Excess amount of silica in clay makes brick brittle and weak.

 Excess amount of alumina in clay makes crack and wrap on drawing.
 Excess amount of lime in clay makes the brick melt and distraught during Burning.
 Excess alkaline salt present in the Brick absorb water from the air, which on drying leave the
powder deposit on brick process is known as "Efflorescence”.

Manufacturing of brick:

The manufacturing of brick consists of following main operations:

14
1) Preparation of clay
2) Molding of brick
3) Drying of brick
4) Burning of clay
1) PREPARATION OF CLAY
The Earth is dug out in clear weather, and cleaned of stones, grits, and vegetables.
Matter (organic matter) etc. After digging it is left to the atmosphere action for few weeks.
The process is known as Weathering. It is found that 1.5 to 2.5 cum of earth. Is required for
1000 bricks. The clay is then tempered in Pugmills. The process of mixing clay, water &
other ingredients is known as Kneading.
2) MOULDING OF BRICKS
After preparing the clay, the molding of bricks is carried out either by Hand or Machine. In
hand molding, bricks are molded by hand that is called manually. It is preferred where
manpower is cheap & readily available. The hand molding may be done either done on
Ground or on Table & accordingly, these are termed as ground molding or table molding,
respectively. The bricks are molded in machine, when large number of bricks are to be
manufactured in a short time. The Machine molding may be preferred either by Plastic
method or by dry method.

NOTE: Handmade bricks are superior to the machine-made bricks for facing purpose.

3) DRYING OF BRICKS:

After the bricks are molded, they are dried. Drying may be Natural or Artificial. In Normal
drying the molded bricks are kept in the sun for a sat or two. So, that they become sufficiently
hard to handle safely. These Bricks are now arranged in row on their edges on a Slightly
raised ground. called Hacks. A little space for circulation of air is kept foreach brick. The
Air- & Sun-dried Bricks are adequately strong and durable if the bricks are not properly
dried. Before they are burnt, they may get cracked or Distorted during the burning process.
The Artificial Drying method is used when the bricks are required on large scale and at a
rapid rate.

4) BURNING OF BRICKS:
Burning of Bricks is Done in a Kiln. The Burning of Bricks is completed Within 24.
hours. The Bricks should be burnt at a temperature of 1000-1200°C. After burning.
in a Kiln. Bricks require 12 Days to cool down for unloading.

15
 CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS
1. FIRST CALSS BRICK: These Bricks are well burnt& having smooth and even surface with
perfect rectangular shape and uniform reddish color.
These bricks should not absorb water more than 20% of its own dry weight after 24 hours of
immersion in water. It should have minimum crushing strength 10.5 MPa.
2. SECOND CLASS BRICK: These are slightly over-burnt having rough surface and not
perfectly rectangular in shape. These bricks should not absorb water more than 22% of its
own dry weight after 24 hours immersion in water.
3. THIRD CLASS BRICK: These bricks are not properly burnt (Over burnt). These bricks are
soft and can easily be broken. These bricks should not absorb water more than 25% of its
own dry weight after 24 hours of immersion in water.
4. JHAMMA BRICK: These bricks are over burnt with regular shape. These Bricks are Dark
bluish in color.

General note:

Standard Size: 19cm × 9cm × 9cm or 19cm × 9cm × 4cm

Specific Gravity: 2.0

Number of Bricks used for 1 cubic meter of Brick masonry (with mortar): 550 Bricks.

16
 CHAPTER 5
MORTAR

The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared by adding required quantity of water to a
mixture of binding material like cement or lime and fine aggregate like sand. The above two
components of mortar, namely, the binding material and fine aggregate are sometimes referred to as
the matrix and adulterant, respectively. The matrix binds the particles of the adulterant and as such,
the durability, quality, and strength of mortar will mainly depend on the quantity and quality of the
matrix. The combined effect of the two components of mortar is that the mass can bind the bricks or
stones firmly. Mortar is material used in masonry construction to fill a gap between bricks and blocks
used in construction.

USES OF MORTAR

 It is used in masonry to bind stones, bricks, or concrete blocks together.

 It provides an even bed to stones, bricks or concrete blocks and prevents their inequalities
from bearing upon one another.
 It is used for pointing the joints of masonry or for plastering the surface of masonry to protect
it from weather and to give the work a pleasing and smooth finish.
 In concrete it is used to bind the particles of coarse aggregate into one solid mass.

Types of Mortar

1. Cement mortars
2. Lime mortars
3. Surki Mortars
4. Ganged Mortars
5. Mud mortars

Cement Mortars

Cement Mortars is a homogeneous pate of cement, sand, and water. Different cement mortars are
obtained by mixing different proportions of cement and sand. To prepare cement mortars, cement
and sand are properly mixed in dry conditions. Water is then added gradually and mixed using a
hovel. The water should be free from clay and other impurities. To safety, strength, and durability of
the resulting wall or any structure depend upon the quality of mortars used as a binding medium.

17
  For Plaster in on walls and slabs, to make them impervious.

 To fill cracks and joints in the wall

 For pointing the joints of the masonry.

 For preparing the building blocks.

Lime mortars

Lime mortar is a type of mortar where lime is used as binding material and sand is used as fine
aggregate. There are two types of limes namely fat lime and hydraulic lime. Fat lime in lime mortars
requires 2 to 3 times of sand and its uses for dry work. The lime mortars have plasticity so they can
place easily. The pyramids at Giza plastered with lime mortars.

Gauged mortars

Ganged mortar is economical than cement concrete. Cement and lime both use as binding material
and sand uses as fine aggregate. It is a lime mortar where cement adds to gain higher strength. The
process of known as gauging. The cement to the lime proportion varies from 1:6 to 1:9.

Surkhi Mortars

Lime uses as binder material and surkhi is employed as fine aggregate. The surkhi is finely powdered
burnt clay which provides more strength than sand and cheaply.
Mud mortars
Mud mortar is a type of mortar. They use as binding material and sawdust, rice husk, or cow-dung is
used as fine aggregate. Mud mortars are useful where lime or cement is not available.

Properties of Good mortars

 The mortars should be easily workable.

 The mortars should develop adequate strength in tension and compression.

 It should be capable of developing designed stress.

 It should set quickly.

 When set and cred is should be hard and durable.

 It should bind the bricks or building stones properly.

 It should be cheap.

18
  mortars should maintain the appearance for quite a long period.

 It should be capable of resisting the penetration of rainwater.

 The mortars use for plastering work, should protect the masonry joints by forming an
impermeable sheath.

 It should have a good consistency.

Tests of mortar

 Flow test

 Compressive strength test

 Air content test

 Setting time test

Flow Test

The mortars flow test utilizes a specially designed table that repeatedly raises and drops a known
quantity of mortar times. During the test, the mortar will spread or flow to from a circular mass and
the diameter of the mass measures and compared to the initial size. The increase in size express as a
percentage of the initial size:

For most mortars, the required flow is 110%. The flow test repeated, using a fresh batch of mortars
each time until the desired flow achieves. The quantity of water needs to achieve flow record, and
this mortar then tests for compressive strength.

Compressive strength Test

This is probably the most relevant test to evaluate the performance of fly ash since concrete value
mainly for its high compressive strength, and the pozzolanic withing the concrete produced
additional cement and thus higher strengths. Once the proper flow achieved, the mortar places and
compacted into bronze cube-shaped molds. The surface of each cube finish using a trowel, and the
molds placed into a moist curing cabinet. After 24 hours of curing, the molds stripe from the cube
specimens. The compressive strength then tests at specified curing intervals, usually 1 or 3 days, 7
days, 28 days, and 56 days.

Air Content test

19
Mortar prepares using a similar method as for compressive strength, except that coarser sand uses
and an AEA mix with mortars to centenarian air within the mix. After mixing, the flow of the mortar
determines. If the flow is within the specified range, then a portion of the mortar places and
compacted into a brass cup of known volume, and the mass of the cup mortars determined.
Subtracting the mass of the cup, and knowing the density of each component, the air content of the
mortars calculates. The test result report is the quantity of AEA requires to achieve a mortar air
content of 18%.
Setting Time test
The elapsed time after mixing whereupon the mortar begins to harden is the set time. This test is
most performed on cement paste but can conduct using mortar. The test completed by measuring the
penetration of a steel needle into the paste or mortar over the course of several hours. The needle is
part of an instrument called a “Vicat apparatus”.

Mortar mix ratio i.e., proportioning of cement sand in mortar provides consistency in the
performance and appearance of masonry construction. Proper proportioning of mortar ingredients
helps in having the following advantages:

 Uniformity of strength

 Uniform workability

 Uniform color

 Uniformity of proportions and yields

Mainly the proportioning of the cement and sand for mortar are conducted by volume proportioning
compared to weight proportioning. The table-1 below shows the amount of lime, sand and ordinary
Portland cement for different mortar type as per ASTM C270 - Standard Specification for Mortar for
Unit Masonry.
Mix Proportions of Mortar as per ASTM C270

Mortar Type Proportions by Volume

Portland Cement Lime Sand
M 1 ¼ 3½
S 1 ½ 4½
N 1 1 6
O 1 2 9
K 1 3 12

20
 CHAPTER 6
CONCRETE

Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together with a
fluid cement (cement paste) that hardens (cures) over time. In other words, it can be defined as the
mixture obtained by mixing cement, water, and aggregates in a required proportion with or without
admixtures is called concrete.

Properties of concrete

The properties of concrete are divided in to two states of concrete. Fresh state properties of concrete
and hardened state properties of concrete.

1.Fresh state properties:

Fresh state include.

 Workability
 Segregation
 Bleeding
 Harsh

2.Hardened state properties

Hardened state include.

 Strength
 Durability
 Impermeability
 Shrinkage
 Creep
 Thermal Expansion

Workability
The concrete should have good workability, it is defined as the fresh concrete that can easily
be mixed transported and placed in a position in a homogenous start. It depends upon the
quantity of water, grading of aggregates and the percentage of fine materials in the mixtures.

21
Segregation
The concrete should be free from segregation. It is defined as the breaking of cohesion
(separation of course aggregates) in amass concrete. It results in honey combing decreases.
Density and ultimately loss of strength of hardened concrete.
Bleeding
The concrete should have no bleeding. It is defined as the separation of water or water and
cement mixture from the freshly mixed concrete. It causes the concrete porous and weak.
Harsh
It is resistance offered by concrete to its surface finishing. The surface of harsh concrete
remains rough and porous.
Strength
The hardened concrete should have high compressive strength so that it can resist the heavy
loads of structures. The strength should not be less than 15.5 N/mm 2.
Durability
The hardened concrete must be durable to resist the effects of rain. Frost action (Freeze-
thaw). This property mainly affected by water-cement ratio.
Impermeability
Hardened concrete should have sufficient impermeability or water tightness so that it can
resist the entry of water inside the concrete structure.
Shrinkage
The hardened concrete should have minimum shrinkage. This property is guided by water-
cement ratio.
Creep
The hardened concrete should be subjected to minimum creep. It is continuous strength,
which the concrete undergoes due to the application of external load.
Thermal Expansion
The hardened concrete should have minimum thermal expansion, to provide good resistance
to fire.

What is Grade of Concrete?

Grade of concrete denotes its strength required for construction. For example, M30 grade
signifies that compressive strength required for construction is 30MPa. The first letter in grade
“M” is the mix and 30 is the required strength in MPa.

22
Based on various lab tests, grade of concrete is presented in Mix Proportions. For example, for
M30 grade, the mix proportion can be1:1:2, where 1 is the ratio of cement,1is the ratio of sand
and 2 is the ratio of coarse aggregate based on volume or weight of materials.
The strength is measured with concrete cube or cylinders by civil engineer sat construction site.
Cube or cylinders are made during casting of structural member and after hardening it is cured
for 28days. Then compressive strength test is conducted to find the strength.
Regular grades of concrete are M15, M20, M25 etc. For plain cement concrete works, generally
M15 is used. For reinforced concrete construction minimum M20 grade of concrete are used.

Compressive Strength
Concrete Grade Mix Ratio
MPa(N/mm2) psi

Normal Grade of Concrete

M5 1:5:10 5MPa 725psi

M7.5 1:4:8 7.5MPa 1087psi

M10 1:3:6 10MPa 1450psi

M15 1:2:4 15MPa 2175psi

M20 1:1.5:3 20MPa 2900psi

Standard Grade of Concrete

M25 1:1:2 25MPa 3625psi

M30 Design Mix 30MPa 4350psi

M35 35MPa 5075psi

M40 Design Mix 40MPa 5800psi

M45 Design Mix 45MPa 6525psi

High Strength Concrete Grades

M50 Design Mix 50MPa 7250psi

M55 Design Mix 55MPa 7975psi

23
 M60 Design Mix 60MPa 8700psi

M65 Design Mix 65MPa 9425psi

M70 Design Mix 70MPa 10150psi

Table: Concrete mixes and purpose

Type of concrete Proportion of mix Nature of work
M5 1 : 5 : 10 Mass concrete for heavy walls,
foundation, footings.
M7.5 1:4:8 Mass concrete, foundations of less
M10 1:3:6 importance.
M15 1:2:4 For general RCC works (slab, beams,
columns, etc.)
M20 1:1½ :3 Water retaining structures, piles, and
general RCC structures.
M25 1:1:2 Heavy loaded RCC.

Classification Of Concrete
 Plain cement concrete
 Lime concrete
 Reinforced cement concrete
 Pre- stressed concrete
 Light weight concrete
 Cellular concrete
 Saw dust concrete.
 Vacuum concrete
 Foam Concrete
Plain cement concrete
The plain cement concrete consists of cement sand and coarse aggregate mixed in a suitable
proportion in addition to the waters. Cement is used as binding material, sand is used as fine
aggregate and crushed stone, broken bricks or gravel is used as coarse aggregate.
The normal proportions of ingredients in PCC are Portland cement (1) clean sand (1.5 to 8)
parts and coarse aggregate (3 to 16) parts.

24
PCC is strong in taking compressive stress.
Lime cement
The lime cement consists of lime, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate and mixed in a suitable
proportion. Lime is used as binding material, sand is used as fine aggregate crushed stone,
broken bricks, or gravel as coarse aggregate.
The normal proportions of ingredients are lime 1 part, sand 2 to 3 parts and coarse aggregate
3 to 4 parts. The lime concrete is cheaper than PCC.
Reinforced cement concrete
The RCC is also known as ferro concrete, in which reinforcement steel bars are embedded.
Normal proportions are, Cement 1 parts, clean sand 1to 2parts, coarse aggregate 2 to 4 parts.
RCC is equally strong for taking tensile, compressive or shear stresses.
Prestressed cement concrete
Prestressed CC is a cement concrete in which high compressive stresses are artificially
induced before its actual use. This type of concrete can take up high tensile and compressive
stresses without development of cracks.
Light weight concrete
Light weight concrete is prepared by light weight (artificial aggregates) in the cement
concrete. This type of concrete possesses high insulating properties. It is used in making
precast structural units for partitioning and wall lining.
Cellular or aerated concrete
Also known as entrained concrete. It is prepared by mixing aluminum and cement concrete. It
is also light in weight and is spongy in structure. It is used for roof slabs and precast units in
portioning for heat and sound insulation.
Sawdust concrete
The saw dust concrete is prepared by mixing cement with saw dust in a specified proportion
in the concrete. It is used as heat and sound insulating material.
Vacuum concrete
The vacuum concrete is the cement concrete in which entrained air and excess water are
removed with vacuum pump after placing in a position. The removal of excess air after
placing concrete helps in increasing the strength of concrete by 15 to 20%. It is used for all
reinforced concrete works.
Foam concrete (LCC)
Foam concrete is also known as light weight cellular concrete LCC. It contains typically 30 to
80% air bubbles. The density of foam concrete varies from 400 to 1600 kg/m3.

25
 CHAPTER 7
TIMBER

A well-seasoned wood used for engineering purpose is known as Timber. However, wood has been
used as a building material for thousands of years, being second only to stone in terms of its rich and
storied history in the world of construction. The chemical properties of wood are inherently complex,
but even despite this challenge, human beings have successfully harnessed the unique characteristics
of wood to build a seemingly unlimited variety of structures. This exceptionally versatile material is
commonly used to build houses, shelters, and boats, but it is also extensively used in the furniture
and home decor industry as well.
Perhaps one of the biggest advantages of using wood as a building material is that it is a natural
resource, making it readily available and economically feasible. It is remarkably strong in relation to
its weight, and it provides good insulation from the cold. Wood is highly machinable and can be
fabricated into all kinds of shapes and sizes to fit practically any construction need. Wood is also the
perfect example of an environmentally sustainable product; it is biodegradable and renewable and
carries the lowest carbon footprint of any comparable building material. In addition, no high-energy
fossil fuels are required to produce wood, unlike other common building materials such as
brick, steel or plastic.
The main difference between Timber and Wood is that the Timber is a wood that is refined and
transformed into beams, girders, and boards, whereas Wood is a rubbery or fibrous substance out of
firs of another vegetation or plants.
Requirements of good Timber
 Should be the heart wood of a healthy tree
 Should be delivered from a matured tree
 Should be free from sap
 Should have a uniform color
 Should be sonorous
 Should be free from knots
What are Knots?
Dead branches drop off healthy, living trees all the time, and wood knots appear in the trunk where
branches died. Knots are imperfections that cause living wood grain to grow around them. These
imperfections are just part of what makes wood a beautiful material with which to work but can also
contribute to possible defects in structural strength for construction lumber.

26
Felling of tree: The process of cutting trees to obtain the timber is called felling of trees. A tree
should be felled as it reaches fully maturity. The growth of a tree is closely associated with the
changing seasons. Felling of trees has to be done very methodically so that there is no damage.
Seasoning of Timber
Freshly cut timber always contains a high percentage of moisture or sap, which must be removed.
The process of removing this sap or moisture is called seasoning.
Timber used without seasoning, it will undergo shrinkage, warping and cracking.
Objectives of seasoning
 To reduce its tendency to shrink, split and warp.
 To reduce its tendency to rot or decay
 To reduce its weight.
 To make it strong and durable
 To make it workable.
 To make it hard and tough
 To make the timber elastic
 To make it capable of being painted and polished.
Natural seasoning
 In this method timber is allowed to dry in the air.
 This method is also known as air seasoning.
 Suitable when enough time can be spread
 This method is cheap and gives best result
 Lot of space remain occupied for a long time in this method
Artificial seasoning
As natural timber takes lot of time so by doing artificially this time interval can be considerably
reduced to a few weeks. There are various methods for artificial seasoning and main methods are:
 Water seasoning
 Boiling
 Kiln seasoning
Preservation of Timber
Wood preservation means treating wood with solutions which makes it poisonous to fungi and
insects. To make timber durable, it becomes essential to preserve it against internal and outside
moisture and attack of insects like white ants.
Preservation of timber can be done by

27
  Charring
 Tarring
 Painting
 Creosoting
Tar Oils
Creosote is the most widely used for oil preservative. It is extracted from cool tar
Generally, it is suitable for outdoor use. Fencing, telegraph poles, railway sleepers
Organic solvents
•This type of preservative is a mixture of poison dissolved in an industrial alcohol.
•The alcohol soaks into the timber very easily (more easily than water), carrying the poison with it.
•Organic solvents preservatives have a faint odor
Water borne preservatives:
•This type of preservatives works in the same way as organic solvents except that the poison is
dissolved in water
•The timber to be treated must be soaked for a longer time than with the organic solvents and must
also be re dried.
•These preservations are odorless and colorless.
Special marketable forms of Timber
• Veneers
• Plywood
• Lamin boards
•Batten boards and
•Fiberboard
Veneers
Thin sheets of wood, varying in thickness from 1 to 6 mm are called veneers
Wood commonly used for veneering is teak, walnut, Oak, and sisoo etc.
Use of cover the surface of interior quality woodwork
Plywood
The term plywood is used for thin boards obtained by joining several veneers or thin layers of wood
Thin layers are also known as piles.
Outside piles are called faces, and inner ones are known as core
Used for doors, windows, cupboard, false ceilings, partition walls etc.
Lamin board and Batten board

28
Considered as special types of plywood with a thickness about 50mm in Lamin boards the core is
made up of number of veneers in batten boards core is made up of strips of sawn wood use whenever
greater rigidity and strength is required
Fiber board
Prepared from wood waste like saw dust, small pieces of wood etc.
Used for internal finishing of buildings like wall paneling, suspended ceilings, flooring works,
partition walls, flush doors and as heat and sound insulting materials etc.

Defects and decay of Timber and woods in Pakistan

Defects of Timber
Timber is a natural product and is usually not free from imperfections. Timer may have several
defects which affect its quality including strength, workability, and appearance. A ‘defect’ is
generally an imperfection, which weakens the wood greatly. Or makes the wood unsuitable to work
with for the purpose it is to be solved.
There are two sources of defects in timber.
(1) Natural defects and
(2) Defects which arise once the tree is cut down, either through poor handling or poor seasoning of
the tree.
Defects due to Natural Forces: The following defects are caused by natural forces:
(a) Knots
(b) Shakes
Natural defects
Knots: Knots are the most common defects caused due to natural forces. During the growth of a tree,
branches close to the ground or lower branches die. Bases of those branches remain in the tree as the
trees grow. These bases may create imperfection known as knots.
Types of Knots: Knots are two types.
Dead knots: The remains of damaged branches after drying out they become loose and fall out.
Live knots: They are sound and firm. If small, are not great of a defect.
Shakes
Shakes: Shakes are timber defects that occur around the annual ring or growth ring of a timber. In
other words, cracks or splits in the woods are called shakes.
Cup and/or Ring Shakes: Cup shakes follow the annual growth ring. It is capable to separate the
growth ring partially or completely. When the crack separates the annual ring completely, it is called

29
ring shakes. So, all ring shakes are cup shakes, but all cup shakes are not a ring shape. Excessive
frost action is the main reason for this type of crack.
Heart Shakes: Unlike star shakes, heart shakes start propagating from the pith to the sapwood along
the lines of modularly rays. Shrinkage of the interior part of the timber causes this crack. Star shakes
are the radial splits originating just beneath the bark.
Shakes types
Defects Developed During the Growth
Dead wood: This defect develops due to over maturity of tree, in this timber has lack in strength and
weight.
Foxiness: The timber develops a reddish strain which is indicative of the beginning of decay.
Druxiness: This defect is due to growth of fungus, due to which timber shows white spots which
mark early the decay.
Coarse grain: In this defect, wood is coarse and loose.
Twisted grain: This defect is caused by the prolonged effect of high winds on the trees due to which
its fibers are twisted.
Upsets: Upsets are also known as ruptures, which are sudden deformation in the fiber of wood. Due
to which timber becomes weak at upsets and the appearance is spoiled.
Decay of Timber
Disintegration and deterioration of timber due to defects causing decomposition is known as decay of
timber. Decay of timber is thus not fit for any engineering use.
Prevention of Decay in Timber
Use naturally durable timbers. Keep all timber dry, at or below 20% moisture content
Make sure there is good ventilation. Treat non-durable timber with a preservative if it cannot keep
dry.

Woods of Pakistan

•Partal •Kikar •Sharol •Deoder •Shisham

•Safeda •Walnut •Mango •Shahtoot •Chir
•Poplar •Neem

30
 CHAPTER 8
GLASS

Glass is an amorphous substance having homogeneous texture. It is a hard, brittle, transparent or

translucent material. It is the most common material glazed into frames for doors, windows, and
curtain walls. The most common types used in building construction are sheet, plate, laminated,
insulating, tempered, wired, and patterned glass. It is a mixture of silicates in fused form. It is
lustrous, transparent products; sometimes translucent by grinding. It is tough and elastic material,
heat and electricity insulator. Highly flexible to be shaped into any desired form etc. It is also in
colored. Wide variety for wider purposes.
Composition of glass
• Commonly consist of sodium and calcium, potassium and lead silicates.
• These constituents in different combination give rise to the basic four main types of glass.
• Soda lime glass = Sodium+ Lime silicates
• Potash lime glass= Potash + Lime silicates
• Potash lead glass= Potash+ + Lead silicates
• Common glass = Sodium + Iron Silicate
Characteristics of glass
• Transparent hard substance
• Tough and elastic
• Highly brittle material
• Good heat, electricity, second insulator
• Absorbs, reflects, refracts and transmit light
• Melting around 1400oC to 1500oC
Characteristics of glass
• Resistant to chemicals (mostly, air and water)
• Can be used to control the noise pollution (double glazing)
• Can be achieved in various shapes and forms.
• Can be used as bullet proof
• It can be rein forced with steel wires
• It can be made into the form of slabs.
Components of glass
Silica: In the form pure and clean sand. It converts in thin fluid at high temperature. Soda and potash
are added to increase viscosity.

31
Sodium and potassium: In the form of sodium and potassium, carbonates and Sulphates It helps in
framing into different required forms.
Lime: Another essential raw material. Available in form of Chalk Addition of lime makes glass
insoluble in water and resistant to chemicals.
Lime imports durability to the glass
Lead oxide: Make glass more durable Increase shine and brightness to glass Manganese oxide:
Coloration due to impurities are corrected by manganese oxide.
Pigments: It gives desired colors to glass
Red = cuprous oxide
Green = chromium oxide
Blue = cobalt oxide
Purple = manganese di oxide
Milky white = tin oxide
Cullet:
 Pieces of some glass waste is added
 Reduces the cost
 Waste is reprocessed
Types of Glass on the basis of its Composition
Soda lime glass
• Consist of sodium and calcium silicates.
• Characterized by its low melting point and high fusibility
• Thus can therefore be easily blown and welded
• It is inferior and cheap but clean and clear.
• Sometime known as soda as glass.
Potash lime Glass
• Mainly consist of potassium and calcium and silicates.
• Also known as it melts of high temperature.
• Resistant of water another chemicals
• Usually used where high temperature are involved.
Potash lead Glass
• Mainly consist of potassium and lead silicates
• Also known as flint glass and is of high grade
• It melts of high temperature

32
• Passes high refractive power and characterized by its bright luster
• Used for making lenses, bulbs, prisms, artificial gems, high grade glass.
Common glass
• Its cheap and inferior variety
• Mainly consist of sodium, calcium and iron silicates
• Its of yellowish, greenish and brownish color.
• Usually known as bottle glass
Obscured Glass
• It is translucent glass
• Light can pass but vision is obscured by making one side grinded.
• Also called frosted Glass
• Usually used for window in toilet, doors and as partitions
Plate glass
• Molten glass is rolled into plate glass
• Thickness varying from 6 to 25mm
• Made transparent and translucent
• Suitable for glazing works
• Tabletops, counters, windows of train carriages, busses and cars windscreens
• Superior quality mirrors
Colored glass
• It is made with different shades by mixing different pigments at fusion state.
• It is also known as stained glass
• Used for decorative proposes or ornamental articles.
Wired glass
• Plate and sheet glass in which wire or mesh is embedded during rolling process.
• The sheet wire acts as the reinforcement
• Even it breaks, the pieces don't fall
• Sky lights, high class roofing works and fire proof doors and windows.
Structural glass
• This verily is used in the construction works.
• It is made in the form of hollow squire blocks, tiles, bricks, and lenses.
• Light in weight
• Easily be cut and drilled
• Uses for transparent face work, partition walls, roofing, flooring works.

33
• Where ever light is desired along with strength.
Laminated glass
• Safety glass
• Consist of sheet glass glued together with celluloid layer between them
• Splinter proof [even breaks, the splinter cannot fly off]
• Commonly used for wind screens, and rear glass of automobiles
Bullet proof glass
• It is bullet resistant
• Consist of number at glass layer alternating with vinyl resin plastic layer, pressed together.
• The inner glass plates are thick and cooling process is carried out under special process.
• Thickness varies from 15mm to 80mm
• Used for aircrafts, cabins offices and where extra safety measures are needed.
Types of Glass
Manufacture of glass
Glass is manufactured process is provided in Fig 4. The essential raw material used for manufacture
of glass include Silica, Sodium and potassium, Lime, Lead, Manganese dioxide and Pigments.

Figure 4. Glass manufacturing process

Manufacturing of glass consists of following steps
1. Melting
a. Pot furnace
b. Tank furnace
2. Forming and shaping
3. Annealing
4. Finishing

34
Melting: The raw materials in proper proportions (soda ash and limestone are mixed and finely
powdered. The homogenous mixture known as Batch is fused with some broken glass called Cullet
in any of the two types of furnaces. The homogeneous mixture is melted either in
a. Pot furnace or
b. Tank furnace
The batch melts and fuses at 1800 oC
Melting: Pot furnace
Two types of pots are used
a. Open crucible type pot
b. Closed covered type pot
Generally closed covered type pot is used. Pot is placed in a circle around a central opening in its
bottom. Heated by burning producer gas and air. Roof of the pot is constructed with refractory
material which also reflects the heat as shown in Fig 5. Also called as batch process

Figure 5. Pot furnace

Melting: Tank Furnace
The melted in the tank using producer gas and air. It follows “regenerative system of heat economy”
Air and fuel is passes through A B as shown in Fig 6. The burnt gases are deflected by the roof and
“gets melted. Hot waste gas escapes through firebricks C D. The direction of the fuel gas & air is
reversed through C & D, which absorbs the heat of the waste gas and burns. The waste gas now
escapes through A & B

35
 Figure 6. Tank furnace

Melting: Chemical reactions

The melting process in case of ordinary soda-glass involves the following series of reactions.
CaCO3 + SiO2 CaSiO3 + CO2
Na2 CO3 + SiO2 Na2 SiO3 + CO2
The molten mass is heated till its free from air bubbles. For the colored gases desired pigment is
added. The molten mass is then cooled at about 800 oC at later point of time
Forming and Shaping, Annealing and Finishing
Shaping, Annealing and Finishing

 Molten gas is converted to desired shape by blowing or moulding or pressing between rollers
“Forming and Shaping”.
 Articles are then cooled gradually at room temperature “Annealing”.
 The longer the annealing period better the quality of glass.
 After annealing, the articles are subjected to cleaning, polishing, cutting, sand blasting etc.
“Finishing”.
Uses of glass
• Packaging (jars for food, bottles for drinks, flacon for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals)
• Tableware (drinking glasses, plate, cups, bowls)
• Housing and buildings (windows, facades, conservatory, insulation, reinforcement structures)
• Interior design and furniture's (mirrors, partitions, balustrades, tables, shelves, lighting)
• Appliances and Electronics (oven doors, cook top, TV, computer screens, smart phones)
• Automotive and transport (windscreens, backlights, light weight but reinforced structural
components of cars, aircrafts, ships, etc.)

36
• Medical technology, biotechnology, life science engineering, optical glass
• Radiation protection from X Rays (radiology) and gamma rays (nuclear)
• Fiber optic cables (phones, TV, computer: to carry information)
• Renewable energy (solar energy glass, wind turbines)
Advantages of Glass
Glass made in different sizes and objects. Glass is in colored or colorless. Glass does not rust, and it is
Waterproof. It is a very Light weight building material hence helps in reducing the dead load of the
Building. It offers unobstructed views thus making the interiors look big. When used in the exteriors it
helps in bringing the outdoors into the indoors. When used as curtain walling in the façade the
interiors are flooded with natural light throughout the day thus increasing the working efficiency of its
occupants. The external glass is treated to reduce glare, prevent heat absorption and resistance to UV
light. This helps in making the building energy efficient.
Drawbacks and disadvantages of Glass
An expensive material and it Breaks easily also melts in high temperatures. When broken, the pieces
may be sharp. It requires regular cleaning. In high rises external cleaning and maintenance from can
be very challenging. Extensive use of glass might result in both psychological and actual security
concerns.

37
 CHAPTER 9
STEEL
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and
other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Currently, steel is one of the most
common materials in the world, with more than 1.3 billion tons produced annually. It is a major
component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and
weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards
organizations.
Manufacture of steel
• The principal method of manufacturing different grades of steel is:
• Cementation process
• Crucible process
• Bessemer process
• Open hearth process
Cementation Process
• The pure wrought iron bars are arranged in the furnace between the layers of powdered charcoal
and maintained at higher temperature about 1500 oC for 5 to 15 days depending upon the quality of
steel required.
• The wrought iron gets covered with blisters due to combination of carbon and thus the steel so
produced is termed as “blister steel”.
•Blister steel has fissures and cavities, and its structure is not homogenous.
• It may be employed for machine parts and facing hammer but less suitable for edge work tools.
Crucible process
• This process for manufacturing steel consists in heating in fire clay crucible either fragments of
“blister steel” or short length of wrought iron bars with charcoal and running the metal into iron
moulds.
• The steel thus produced is known as cast steel
• It is extremely hard and uniform in quality; it finds its use in making finest cutlery and hardest
cutting tools
Bessemer process
• This process makes use of pear shape iron convertor which is supplied with pig iron melted in a
cupola
• The convertor is lines with fire bricks and can revolve about the horizontal fusions.

38
• The bottom is pierced by several layers connecting with wing box underneath and made detachable
since the wear on it is very severe.
• It is usually changed after every 15 20 blows.
Bessemer convertor
• Bessemer converter is a pear-shaped furnace, 20 feet high and 10 feet in diameter. It is made of
steel plates and is lined inside with brick to resist heat. There are number of holes at the base, called
tuyeres, for air circulation. The converter can be rotated on a horizontal central axis.
• The Bessemer converter is turned into a horizontal position and molten pig iron is poured into it. A
blast of hot air is sent through the tuyeres the converter is rotated so that it is vertical and hot air is
blown continuously. In its upward travel through the converter, the air oxidizes the impurities in pig
iron.

Manganese and silicon are oxidized to the respective oxides during the first 5 to 10 minutes. Carbon
monoxide is liberated at a later stage and it burns with a blue flame at the mouth of the converter.
When all the carbon is oxidized, the blue flame dies out.
• To convert pig iron to steel, the required amount of carbon is then added. This is in the form of an
alloy of iron called Spiegel Eisen. It contains carbon and manganese besides iron. The resulting
product is manganese steel, which is removed by tilting the converter.

SLAG FORMATION
• The impurities like manganese oxide and silicon dioxide formed during the initial stages of the
Bessemer process are removed when they react with each to form a slag.

• If the cast or pig iron contains phosphorus as an impurity, the converter should be lined with lime (
CaO ) and magnesia MgO ) instead of Silica. Some lime is also added to the charge.
Advantages and disadvantages of Bessemer convertor
• The cast of building a Bessemer convertor plant is comparatively less than of an open-hearth plant
of equivalent capacity

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• A Bessemer convertor, with its small size and ease of handling makes it possible to produce small
tonnages of many different grades of steel is less than an hour. Major repairs can be made in a
friction of time.
Open hearth process
Natural gas or atomized heavy oils are used as fuel, both air and fuel are heated before combustion.
The furnace is charged with liquid blast-furnace iron and steel scrap together with iron ore,
limestone, dolomite, and fluxes. The furnace itself is made of highly refractory materials such as
magnetite bricks for the hearths and roofs. Capacities of open-hearth furnaces are as high as 600
tons, and they are usually installed in groups, so that the massive auxiliary equipment needed to
charge the furnaces and handle the liquid steel can be efficiently employed.
Comparison between Bessemer and Open-Hearth Processes
Bessemer process Open hearth process
It can use comparatively higher phosphate pigs of It can use lower phosphoric pigs of narrower
wider ranges of composition ranges of composition.
Scarp iron cannot be used Scarp can be used
Refining and finishing require 10 to 20 minutes Refining and finishing are completed within 8 to
10 hours
Bessemer process Open hearth process
Low capital investment Low capital investment
Operation depends entirely on eye judgment, so it Operation is guided by laboratory analysis, so it is
is very difficult to produce a uniform product comparatively possible to produce a uniform
product
It produces inferior quality steel associated with Its steel is of much superior quality containing
blowholes and inclusions lesser blowholes and inclusions
Output low(80% of pig used) output high comparatively

Electric Process
• Electric furnace, heating chamber with electricity as the heat source for achieving very high
temperatures to melt and alloy metals and refractories. The electricity has no electrochemical effect
on the metal but simply heats it
• This process makes use of two types of electric furnaces
• Arc type furnace
• High frequency type
Arc type furnace
• In this method, iron is heated electrically. Normally these days, steel is prepared by open hearth
process. About 39% of the steel manufactured in US is produced from the electric furnace. The steel
produced by this process is not very pure or of high quality.

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• Energy Consumption: An electric arc furnace consumes energy of 350 700 kWh/ton of steel
produced. We can reduce the energy consumption to 425 kWh/ton by using oxy fuel burners. This
process is used for the electric production of steel. It is used for re melting of steel scrap. This
process is useful for those markets where the quality of steel is not critical.
Composition, properties and uses of carbon steel.
TYPES OF STEEL
Carbon steel are classified as follows.
a. Low carbon steels or mild steels
b. Medium carbon steel
c. High carbon steel
Low Carbon Steel or Mild Steel
• The carbon content does not increase 0.25%
• Soft and ductile
• Mostly used for construction purpose
• Uses: Sheets, rods, wires, pipes, hammers, chains, shafts etc.
Properties of Mild Steel
• Ductile and malleable
• It corrodes quickly
• It can be permanently magnetized
• It is tough and more elastic than cast iron and wrought iron and withstands shocks and impacts well
• It is equally strong in tension, compression, and shear
• Its specific gravity is 7.8
• It is not much affected by Saline water
Medium carbon steel
• The carbon content is 0.25 to 0.5 %
• Stronger than the mild steel slightly less ductile
• Uses: Shafts, connecting rods and rails etc.
High carbon steel
• Carbon content is above 0.5%
• Harder and stronger than mild steel and medium carbon steel
•Uses: Keys, knifes, drills etc.
Properties of High Carbon Steel
• Its structure is granular
• It is more tough and elastic than mild steel

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 • It is easier to harden and then to weld
• It is more difficult to forge and then to weld
• It can be permanently magnetized
• Comparatively it is stronger in compression than in tension or in shear
• It withstands vibration and shocks better
Heat Treatment to Steel
To develop desired properties of steel Properties can be controlled by heat treatment Heat treatment
affects the nature, amount, and character of the metallographic properties.
Principle purposes of heat treatment are follows.
 To enhance properties such as strength, ductility, hardness, and toughness
 To relieve internal stresses and strains
 To refine the grain
 To remove gases
 To normalize steel after heat treatment
STEEL SECTIONS
This grouping of sections in serial sizes is convenient for production within a range of rolling sizes
and for the selection of a suitable size and weight by the designer. The deep web to flange
dimensions of beams and the near similar flange to web dimensions of columns are chosen to suit
the functions of the structural elements.
Because of the close similarity of the width of the flange to the web of column sections, they are
sometimes known as broad flange sections.
Hot Rolled Section
The metallurgical process of hot rolling. Used mainly to produce sheet metal or simple cross
sections from billets describes the method of when industrial metal is passed or deformed between a
set of work rolls and the temperature of the metal is generally above its recrystallization temperature.
Hot rolling permits large deformations of the metal to be achieved with a low number of rolling
cycles.
Hot rolling is primarily concerned with manipulating material shape and geometry rather than
mechanical properties.
You will find hot rolled products like hot rolled steel bars in the welding and construction trades such
as making railroad tracks, I beam, and other steel construction materials that don't require super
precise shapes.
Cold Rolled Section

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Cold rolled steel is manufactured at temperatures below its recrystallization temperature, typically at
around room temperature.
Because the steel is manufactured at a much lower temperature, there's no need to worry about the
steel shrinking or changing form or appearance.
The cold rolled steel and products like cold finished steel bar has a much smoother appearance and
may have square corners more accurate in dimension and finish.
Cold rolled steel is much more preferred in the machining world where the quality of the steel is an
important factor of the quality of the final product, and the appearance of the steel is also an
important factor.
Stainless Steel
• Stainless steel is an alloy of Iron with a minimum of 10.5% Chromium. Chromium produces a thin
layer of oxide on the surface of the steel known as the 'passive layer'. This prevents any further
corrosion of the surface. Increasing the amount of Chromium gives an increased resistance to
corrosion.
• Stainless steel also contains varying amounts of Carbon, Silicon and Manganese. Other elements
such as Nickel and Molybdenum may be added to impart other useful properties such as enhanced
formability and increased corrosion resistance.
Important failures in steels
• Failure of a connection
• Failure of Beams
• Failure in compression
• Failure in Tension

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 CHAPTER 10

PIPES AND FITTINGS

Plumbing:

The word “Plumbing” comes from the Latin word PLUMBUM for lead as pipe were made from
lead. It is system of pipes, drains, fittings, walls, wall assemblies and devices install in buildings for
distribution of water for drinking, heating, and washing. It represents the water supply in drainage
and sewerage system in the buildings.

There are two components of Plumbing.

1.Pipes

1. PEX
2. Copper pipe
3. Galvanized Iron
4. Brass
5. PVC
6. HDPE
7. Asbestos pipe
8. Cast Iron pipe
9. Cement pipe
2.Fittings:
1. Coupling
2.Reducer
3. Valves
4. Elbows
5.Unions
6. Tee
7. Cross
8.Cap

PIPE

A tube used to convey water, gas, oil or other fluid substances. There are two main uses:

44
 1. Water supply
2. Drainage/sewerage

PEX (Flexible Plastic Pipe)

Flexible plastic piping is popular in residential section, Small buildings, minimum maintenance, fast
installation, leak free products offering advantages over copper piping. It cannot be used in outdoor
application as UV rays can damage its outdoor plastic layer. It is available in various diameters i-e
from 1/2” to 3/2”.

Copper piping

It is mostly used for supply of hot and cold water as a refrigerator lines HVAC (Heating Ventilation
and Air Conditioning) system. There are two basic types of Copper.

1. Soft Copper
2. Rigid Copper

PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride)

It is used for hot and cold portable water sewerage and drainage application. There is various
diameters and thicknesses are available depends upon where it is used. For example: Pressure water
pipe are not same as sewage pipes and not the same as once used strong water drain.

G.I Pipes (Galvanized Iron)

It was used several years ago. Less frequent used now a days as rust can built up inside the small
diameter of pipe. It can be used for high temperature and pressure manufacturing process. It is still in
used in petroleum industries.

Brass

It is alloy made up of copper and zinc. The proportion of zinc and copper can be varied to create a
range of brass pipe. It provides a great resistance to rust. It is made up of 67 to 85 % of copper. It is
excellent for hot water and large distribution system such as pump fittings water tanks and walls. It is
generally available in 12 feet straight length.

FITTINGS

Pipe fittings are used in plumbing system to connect the straight pipes with different sizes, shapes,
and other purposes such as change of direction of pipe, installation of tape or any other equipment
and water measuring devices.

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 Figure 7. Pipe fittings

There are various fittings:

Coupling

It is an equipment used to connect the two pipes of same and different sizes. It is also called as
Reducer or Adapter.

Elbow

It is used to connect the two pipes to change the direction mostly on 90 degree. It also used to reduce
the size.

Union

It is like coupling except it is design to allow quick and convenient disconnection for maintaining or
fixture replacing. Standard union pipe is made up in three parts.

1. Nut
2. Female end
3. Male end

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Tee

It is available with all female thread sockets. It is used either combine or spilt. The fluid flow tee
having two outlets at 90 degree to connect the main line used for connecting pipe for different
diameter or change the direction of pipe. It is extensively used in pipeline network.

Cross

It is also known as four-way fitting. If a bunch of lines passes completely through a tee the fitting
become a cross. It has one inlet and three outlets and vice versa. It is commonly used in fire
sprinkling system.

Cap

It is used as like a plug except the pipe cap screw are attached on the male thread of pipe.

Some important points:

Yellow pipe is used for Gas.

Green pipe is used for Hot water.

Formula Q=AV

Male and Female adaptors are used to convert G.I into PVC and vice versa.

Some important short forms:

 OHT (Over Head Tank)

 UGT (Underground Tank)
 UHDP (Ultra High-Density pipe)
 HDPE (High Density Polyethylene)
 uPVC (un–Plasticized Poly Vinyl Chloride)
 NEQS (Nationality Environment Quality Standard)

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 CHAPTER 11

PAINTS, VARNISHES AND DISTEMPERS

Paints are the coatings of fluids materials vials applies over the surface of timber and metals
protective coating and to improve its physical appearance, the paints are commonly used for
engineering purposes is known as oil paints. It is a fluid paste prepared by dissolving the base in to a
vehicle along with the coloring pigments, the base used in oil paints are white lead, two inch white
red lead, iron oxide , titanium white and lithopone (a mixer of zinc sulphate ),The base in oil paints
is added to hide the surface to be painted, the vehicle used as linseed oil, poppy, nut oil, tung oil ,
Kerosene oil etc. , it acts as a bonder between the base and pigments. The color in pigments includes,
black, blue, etc. The other ingredients of oil paint are solvents or thinner drier and inert filler, the
solvents added in the paint to modify the consistency of paint to make its application easy and
smooth. The driers are added to enable the paint to quickly dry the inert filler (silica, gypsum,
powdered chalk) are used to make the paints economical and desired quality. The different types of
paint, oil paints, enamel paints, and emulsion paints etc.

Varnishes

It is a homogeneous mixture of natural or synthetic resins in a particular solvent, the commonly used
resins are, copal, amber, lac, or shell crammer etc.

And the solvents are methylated spirit, alcohol, linseed oil, etc.

The dries are also added to help the varnishes dry quickly.

Types of varnishes

1. Oil varnishes
2. Spirit varnishes

Distemper

Distemper is made by mixing dry pigments with clean water like (chalk and whitening). It is used to
plastered surfaces not to exposed to the weathers.

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 CHAPTER 12

TILES

Tile is special type of brick, which is thinner than the ordinary brick, tiles are mostly used, for
roofing, flooring, and walling. The different sizes of tiles are manufactured in Pakistan, but the
common sizes are given below.

Length (inches) Width (inches) Thickness (inches)

12 6 1- ¼
12 6 2
12 12 1- ¼
9 4- ½ 2
Classification of tile on material based.

1. Clay type
2. Encaustic tile or decorated tile: these are ceramic tile in which pattern or figure on the
surface is not a product of glaze but of different colors of clay, they are used of two colors
usually, but the tile may be made of as many as six colors.
Acoustic tile may be glazed or unglazed and in clay may be as shallow as 1/8 or 1\4
inches or 3mm in some cases it is printed,

Classification of tiles depending upon use.

there are six main operations involved in the manufacturing of common tile.

1. Selection of suitable clay

2. Preparation of clay
3. Molding and pressing of clay.
4. Drying and shaping
5. Burning
6. Cooling

1. Selection of clay: for manufacturing of tile, we need superior type of clay, clay should be
completely free from objectionable material such as grits, pebbles, stones, organic matter
etc. The clay should be screened to have uniform size and it should be finely powdered and
tempered and a proper way as tiles are thinner then bricks therefore the great care should
taking during the manufacturing of tile.

49
 2. Preparation of clay: this is done by mixing water with clay and store it in dame condition
then the solution is taken, then allow the solution in a tank resulting in a heavy course
particle taking place in bottom of tank, the water containing fine particles of clay is
transferred to another tank, where it is allowed for a period of single day then leaving fine
particles ready for molding.
3. molding: molding operations on done on the ground specially prepared by is purpose all
the instruments such as mold, motor, traveler etc. must be available at molding site,

the molder: sprinkles, ashlar, and used strict accordingly to the size of tile and to make the
surface smooth and level after that tile is send to machine for pressing,

4. drying and shaping: two days after molding of tile, these are given to proper shape after
that on third day these are polished then again keep them for drying of two days. The great
care should be taken at this stage for proper drying and shaping.
5. Burning: the tiles are burnt in kiln at a temperature of 1200 OC for 2 or 3 hours and this
process is repeated for a second time,
6. Cooling: after burning the cooling is done slowly 3 to 5 days are required for cooling of
tiles.

Manufacturing of acoustic tiles: these tiles are very costly and mostly used for decorative
purpose in buildings, these tiles are manufactured in the same way as common tile, but some
special material and colors are mixed with clay during their manufacturing process. After their
manufacturing they are glazed with beautiful colors.

Ceramic tile: this is general term used to denote the inorganic nonmetallic materials prepared
from different types of clays by application of heat.

Classification of ceramic materials

1. Clay building material

2. Clay tiles
3. Glass and glass products
4. Refractories
5. Porcelain
Refractory: a clay with ability of standing with very high temperature without being soft or
melted is known as fire clay or refractory clay, all those bricks which are manufactured from
these fire clays are known as refractory bricks.

50
These refractories are used in kiln or furnaces or at those places where application of heat
these classified in three groups.
1. Acid refractories
2. Basic refractories
3. Neutral refractories
1. Acid refractory: acid refractories are those which are attacked by alkalis (basic clay)
these are used in those areas where slag and atmosphere are acidic, for acidic
refractories silica sio2 and zirconia Tories.
2. Basic refractories: are those which are attacked acid slag but stable but stable to
alkaline slags, dust, and fumes at elevated temperatures since they do not react with
alkaline slag, these refractories are of considerable importance for the furnace lining
where the environment is alkaline.
For example: calcium oxide or magnesium oxide
3. Neutral: are chemically neutral and equal to both acid and bases and are used in the
areas where slag and atmosphere are either acidic or basic. The common examples of
these materials are, example: carbon graphite, chromite (Cr2O3) and Alumina out of
this graphite is least reactive and extensively used in metallurgical fumes where the
process of oxidation can be controlled.

51
 CHAPTER 13

ACOUSTIC MATERIALS

When the sound intensity is more, then it gives the great trouble or nuisance to the area like
auditorium, cinema hall, studio, recreation center, entertainment hall, college reading hall. Hence it is
very important to make that area or room to be soundproof by using a suitable material called as
‘Acoustic material’. It is measured in decibles (dB). However, sound control is necessary to
improving hearing conditions and reduce unwanted noise in any given room. To control the
transmission of sound from one room to another through walls, floors, and ceilings.

Figure 8. Decibel noise levels

Sound Mechanics:

 Sound travels through the air as waves, in the form of small pressure changes occurring
regularly above and below the normal atmospheric pressure.
 The average variation in pressure in a sound wave, above and below the normal, is called
sound pressure. It is related to the loudness of a sound.
 The loudness or strength of a sound – its intensity is measured in Decibels (dB).

Sound control

The fraction of sound energy absorbed by a material at a specific frequency, during each sound wave
reflection, is called the Sound Absorption Coefficient of that surface. Most sounds contain a range of

52
frequencies; it is necessary to use an average of the absorption coefficient when considering sound
absorption. To obtain that average, it has been customary to average four (4) coefficients from 250 to
2000 Hz inclusive and call the result the Noise-Reduction Coefficient (NRC), which is expressed as
a percentage. For example, glass, concrete, and masonry would have an NRC rating of 0.05 or less.
Some other materials might have a rating of 0.90 or better.

Sound Control Material

Acoustical materials can be classified into 3 groups:

1. Acoustical tiles

2. Assembled acoustical units

3. Sprayed-on acoustical materials

1. Acoustical Tiles

They are made from wood, cane, or asbestos fibers, matted, and bonded into sheets of various
thickness (5-32 mm). The sheets are cut into tiles of several sizes. Edges may be square cut, or
tongue-and-grooved.

2. Assembled Units

Assembled units usually consist of some type of sound-absorbing material such as a rock-wool or
glass-fiber blanket fastened to an acoustically transparent facing. This facing is generally some type
of rigid board, such as hardboard or asbestos board, or a metal sheet. The faces are perforated to
allow the penetration of sound waves.

3. Sprayed-On Acoustical Materials

Two type of material are used for this kind of sound control application.

 Plaster made with vermiculite or perlite aggregate.

 Coating of a mineral fiber mixed with an adhesive.
 Vermiculite acoustic plaster is generally premixed product, requiring only the
 addition of approximately 46 liter of water per bag of mix.
 This plaster can be applied by hand or by machine spraying and will bond to any clean, firm,
water-resistant surface such as base plaster, concrete.

53
Properties of Acoustic Material

 Sound energy is captured and adsorbed.

 It has a low reflection and high absorption of sound.
 Higher density improves the sound absorption efficiency at lower frequencies.
 Higher density material helps to maintain a low flammability performance. Hence acoustic
material should have higher density.
 It controls the sound and noise levels from machinery and other sources for environmental
amelioration and regulatory compliance.
 Acoustic material reduces the energy of sound waves as they pass through.
 It suppresses echoes, reverberation, resonance, and reflection.

Uses of Acoustic Material

 Acoustic materials can be used for noise reduction and noise absorption.
 It makes the sound more audible which is clear to listen without any disturbances.
 It suppresses echoes, reverberation, reflection, and resonance.
 Important specifications for noise reduction and noise absorption products include noise
attenuation and noise reduction coefficient.
 A vinyl acoustic barrier blocks controls airborne noise (street traffic, voices, music) from
passing through a wall ceiling or floor.
 Acoustic foam and acoustic ceiling tiles absorb sound so as to minimize echo and
reverberation within a room.
 Soundproof doors and windows are designed to reduce the transmission of sound.
 Building techniques such as double wall construction or cavity wall construction and
staggering wall studs can improve the sound proofing of a room.
 A soundproof wall (treated by an accurate material) can incorporate sound proofing and
acoustic materials to meet desired sound transmission class (STC) values.

54
 REFERENCES

1. Reinforced concrete design (4th Edition) by Chu-kia wang Charles G. Salmon

2. Civil Engineering Materials (1st Edition) by Peter Claisse.
3. Civil Engineering Construction Materials by S.K. Sharma
4. Civil Engineering Materials by S.V. Deodhar
5. Building Materials in Civil Engineering by Haimei Zhang
6. Materials of Construction by H.S. Vishwanath
7. Civil Engineering Materials (1st Edition) by Qiang Yuan Zanqun Liu Keren Zheng Cong Ma
8. Civil Engineering Materials by Shan Somayaji
9. Civil Engineering by R. Agor
10. Civil Engineering by R.S. Khurmi & J.K. Gupta

55
 OBJECTIVE TYPE QUIZ

1. The rocks formed through solidification of molten mass laying below or above the earth
surface as called ____________________________ rocks
2. Marable is an example of _________________________ rock
3. The ordinary Portland cement is identified by ASTM C150 as _________________-.
4. Aggregates usually occupies about __________________ of the total volume of concrete.
5. Fine aggregates can pass through _________________ sieve.
6. For the design purpose the unit weight of plain concrete is taken about _____________pcf
and for RCC is take about _____________pcf.
7. The initial setting time of cement should not be less than __________________ and final
setting time should not be more than _____________
8. First class brick should not absorb water more than _________________ when immersed in
water for 24 hours and it should have minimum compressive strength of ______________
9. Over burnt bricks with irregular shape are known as __________________ bricks.
10. ___________________________ Efflorescence, when 50% area is covered with deposit of
salts without powdering or flaking surface.
11. The specific gravity of stone should not, in any case, be less than____________
12. For one cubic meter of brick masonry, the number of bricks required are _____________
13. The amount of gypsum, usually, added in the manufacturing of cement is ______________
14. The silica in Portland cement should be __________________
15. The main constituent of a Portland cement is ____________________________
16. The hydraulic lime generates __________________heat as compared to fat lime.
17. The maximum water-cement ratio for durable concrete is _______________
18. For RCC construction, the maximum size of coarse aggregate is limited to
________________
19. The moisture content in timber for formwork should not exceed _________________
20. The chief ingredient of a paint is _____________________
21. The solvent used in cement paints is ___________________
22. The bitumen paint is used for providing ______________________surface.
23. Seasoning of timber improves ______________________________ of timber.
24. The soundness of cement is tested by ____________________________________________
25. _________________________ is used to determine initial & final setting time of cement
paste and consistency of cement paste.

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 ANSWERS

(1) igneous (2) metamorphic (3) Type -I (4) 75% (5) 4.75mm (6) 145 & 150 (7) 30minutes &
10hours (8) 20% & 10.5 MPa (9) Jhama (10) Moderate (11) 2.5 (12) 550 (13) 1 to 3% (14) 20
to 25% (15) Lime (16) less (17) 0.80 (18) 25mm (19) 15% (20) pigment (21) water (22)
protective (23) strength properties (24) Le-chatelier method (25) Vicat’s apparatus

57