ANALYSIS OF

STATICALLY DETERMINATE STRUCTURES

8 THE VIRTUAL WORK METHOD

(Unit Load method)

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8.1 External work - Force

• When a force N undergoes a
displacement dx in the
linear elastic
material same direction as the force,
the work done is

dW = N(𝑥) d
d
∆d

• If the total displacement is ∆,

𝐍 N(𝑥) the work becomes
∆
𝐍
𝐍
𝒙
W = N(𝑥) d
∆

∆
𝑥 N 1
= 𝑥 d = N∆
∆ ∆ 2
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8.2 External work - Moment
• The work of a moment M is
defined by the product of the 𝜃
𝑀
magnitude of the moment M 𝑑
and the angle dθ through
which it rotates, that is

As in the case of force, if the

dW = M(θ) d
moment is applied gradually
from zero to M , the work
becomes
• If the total rotation is 𝛉𝒆 , the
work becomes M
W = θ d
θ
W = M(θ) d
1
= M θ
2
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8.3 Strain Energy – Axial Force

When an axial force N is applied gradually to a body and causes
deformation, the external work done by this external force will
be converted into internal work called strain energy.

∴ Normal stress σ = N⁄A

linear elastic
material and Final strain ε = ∆⁄L
(σ = Eє)

NL
σ = Eε ⟹ ∆=
EA
𝐍
1 N L
The bar has constant Recall: W = N∆ ⟹W =
cross-sectional area A 2 2EA
and length L
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8.3 Strain Energy – Bending
The strain in arc ds (y
from the neutral axis) is
𝜀 = (𝑑𝑠 − 𝑑𝑠)⁄𝑑𝑠

𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆: 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜌𝑑𝜃
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑠 = (𝜌 − 𝑦)𝑑𝜃

Linear elastic 𝜺 = −𝒚⁄𝝆 − (𝒊𝒊𝒊)

material
𝝈 = 𝑬𝜺 Combining (i), (ii), and (iii)
(𝒊) ⇒ 𝑑𝜃 = (𝑀⁄𝐸𝐼)𝑑𝑥
Flexural 𝑀 𝑀
formula 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑀 𝑑𝜃
𝑴𝒚
𝝈=− 𝑀
𝑰 Before After 𝑊 = 𝑑𝑥
(𝒊𝒊) deformation deformation 2𝐸𝐼
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8.4 Principle of work and Energy

F 𝑊 = 1 𝐹∆
2 𝑊 =𝑊
∆
1 1𝐹 𝐿
M = −𝐹𝑥 𝑀 𝐹∆ =
FL 𝑊 = 𝑑𝑥 2 6 𝐸𝐼
2𝐸𝐼
− (−𝐹𝑥) 1𝐹 𝐿 𝐹𝐿
= 𝑑𝑥 = → ∆=
2𝐸𝐼 6 𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼
F 1
L/2 L/2 𝑊 = 𝐹∆ 𝑊 =𝑊
2
∆
𝑀 1 1 𝐹 𝐿
𝑊 = 𝑑𝑥 𝐹∆ =
2𝐸𝐼 2 96 𝐸𝐼
+
𝐹 /
1 𝐹 𝐿 𝐹𝐿
M= 𝑥 𝑭𝑳⁄𝟒 =2 𝑑𝑥 = → ∆=
2 2𝐸𝐼 96 𝐸𝐼 48𝐸𝐼
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8.4 Principle of work and Energy
F 𝑊 = 1 𝐹∆
2 𝑊 =𝑊
∆
1 1𝐹 𝐿
M = −𝐹𝑥 𝑀 𝐹∆ =
FL 𝑊 = 𝑑𝑥 2 6 𝐸𝐼
2𝐸𝐼
− (−𝐹𝑥) 1𝐹 𝐿 𝐹𝐿
= 𝑑𝑥 = → ∆=
2𝐸𝐼 6 𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼
Note: 1) If more than one load is applied, there would be an unknown ∆
under each load, but only one “work” equation can be written for
the beam.

2) Only ∆ under the force can be obtained since the We depends

upon both the force and its corresponding displacement.

One way to circumvent these limitations is to use the method of

virtual work explained in the next slides.
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8.5 Virtual work method

Virtual work means imaginary work and the concept has two
different forms:

1) Virtual forces - Where the displacement field is real and the

forces are virtual (or imaginary).

2) Virtual displacements – Where the force field is real and the

displacements are virtual.

In the former, the virtual forces are introduced so that

information can be gathered about the real displacements,
while in the latter, virtual displacements are selected in
order to obtain information about the real forces.

In both approaches,
the external virtual work = the internal virtual work

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8.6 Development of principle of virtual work
Consider the structure below,
External Work Internal Work
F F
F F

𝑊 𝑊
F ∆ ∆
∆ ∆
F
F
∆ F
F
F +F F 𝑊
F
F 𝑊
F F 𝑊
𝑊
∆ ∆ 𝑊 𝑊
∆ ∆
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
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8.6 Development of principle of virtual work

𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟏
Conservation of energy: W = W External Work Internal Work
W = W ⇒ 0.5F ∆ = 0.5F ∆ F
𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟐 F F
Conservation of energy: W = W
𝑊 𝑊
W +W +W =W +W +W ∆ ∆
We know W = W ∆ ∆
Similary W = W F
∴ W =W F
F
F ∆ =F ∆
F 𝑊
If we take F as our external F
applied 𝐯𝐢𝐫𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 then 𝑊
F
𝑬𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒊𝒓𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑊
𝑊
= 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒊𝒓𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑊 𝑊
(𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓
∆ ∆
𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘) ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
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8.7 Application of Virtual Work
The key to the application of virtual work is that:
• We can consider the real and virtual systems separately.
• We can also consider both the real and virtual forces acting
on the system simultaneously. Simply by applying the principle
of superposition (as long as the system is linear) i.e., adding the
effects of the real and virtual loads.

In general, we have three different sets of loads for the

structure:
1) The real system - the structure with all of the applied loads
2) The virtual system - the same structure but with a single
virtual unit load or unit moment.
3) The combined system - The superposition of the real and
virtual systems where the virtual load is applied first, and
then the applied loads after (See previous slide).
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8.7.1 Beams/Frames – Deform by bending

Consider the simple beam below, length L, loaded at mid-point. The
deformation is represented by a solid line. Here displacement at point
c (L/4 from A) caused by the applied load is to be determined.

𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐕𝐢𝐫𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦

P F ∆ =F ∆ 1
L/4 c L/4
∆ ∆
A B A B
𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞: F ∆ =1 ∆
and for beams, F = M and ∆ = θ ⟹ So that, 1 ∆ = M θ

For element d𝑥, deformation or rotation: d = (M ⁄EI)d𝑥

(𝑀 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠)

Recall: dW = M1i d
M M
1 ∆ =M θ = Total internal virtual work = d𝑥
EI
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8.7.1 Beams/Frames – Deform by bending
𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐕𝐢𝐫𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦
P 1
L/4 c L/4
∆ ∆
A B A B
BMD M M

+ +
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃𝐿 3𝑃 𝑃 𝑃𝐿
𝑥 𝑃𝐿 𝑥 3𝑃𝐿 − 𝑥+
2 − 𝑥+ 4
4 2 2 4 4
16
Integrating /
M M
/
M M
/
M M
M ∆ = d𝑥 + d𝑥 + d𝑥
EI EI EI
+ /
( )
/
( ) ( )

1 𝑃 3𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃𝐿
= ( 𝑥)( 𝑥)d𝑥 + ( 𝑥)(− 𝑥 + )d𝑥 +
(𝒂) (𝐛) (𝐜) EI 2 4 2 4 4
/
+ 𝑃 𝑃𝐿 𝑃 𝑃𝐿 𝑷𝟐 𝑳𝟑
M (− 𝑥 + )(− 𝑥 + )d𝑥 =
2 2 4 4 𝟕𝟔𝟖
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8.7.1 Beams/Frames – Deform by bending (∆)

In general, if the displacement at a point (∆p) is to be determined, a unit
load is first applied at the same point, and the corresponding internal
moments have to be determined.

Since the work of the unit load is 1·∆p then

M M
1 ∆ = d𝑥
EI
𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞,
∆ = External displacement of the point caused by the applied loads

1 = External virtual unit load applied at a point and in the direction of ∆

M = Internal virtual moment f(𝑥 ) caused by external virtual unit load
M = Internal moment f(𝑥 ) caused by the applied loads
E = modulus of elasticity of the material
I = moment of inertia of cross − sectional area, computed about the neutral axis
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8.7.2 Beams/Frames – Deform by bending (θ)
Similarly, suppose the tangent rotation or slope angle at a point (θp) is to
be determined. In this case, a unit moment is first applied at the same
point, and the corresponding internal moments have to be determined.

Since the work of the unit moment is 1·θp then

M M
1 θ = d𝑥
EI
𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞,
θ = External rotation of the point caused by the applied loads

1 = External virtual unit moment applied at a point and in the direction of θ

M = Internal virtual moment f(𝑥 ) caused by external virtual unit moment
M = Internal moment f(𝑥 ) caused by the applied loads
E = modulus of elasticity of the material
I = moment of inertia of cross − sectional area, computed about the neutral axis
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8.7.3 Trusses – Deform by change in length of the members

8.7.3.1 Joint Displacement
In a similar manner, if the displacement of a truss joint is to be determined,
a unit load is first applied at the same joint, and the corresponding
internal normal forces have to be determined.

Since the work of the joint displacement is 1· ∆j then

N N L NL
1 ∆= Recall (slide 4): ∆=
EA EA
𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞,
∆ = External joint displacement caused by the applied loads
1 = External virtual unit load applied at a joint and in the stated direction of ∆
N = Internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by external virtual
unit load
N = Internal normal force in a truss member caused by the applied loads
E = Modulus of elasticity of the material
A = Cross − sectional area of a member L = Length of a member
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8.7.3 Trusses – Deform by change in length of the members
8.7.3.2 Fabrication Errors or Camber
Occasionally, errors in fabricating the lengths of the members of a truss
may occur. Also, in some cases, truss members must be slightly longer or
shorter to give the truss a camber.

If a truss member is shorter or longer than intended, the displacement of

a truss joint from its expected position can be determined using the
equation below:
1 ∆ = N δL

𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞,
∆ = External joint displacement caused by the fabrication errors
1 = External virtual unit load applied at a joint and in the stated direction of ∆
N = Internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by external virtual
unit load
δL = Change in length of the member from its intended size as caused by a
fabrication error
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8.7.3 Trusses – Deform by change in length of the members

8.7.3.3 Temperature
In some cases, truss members may change their length due to
temperature. If α is the coefficient of thermal expansion for a member and
δT is the change in its temperature, the change in length of a member is
δL = α δT L Hence, we can determine the displacement of a selected
truss joint due to this temperature change using the equation below:

1 ∆ = N α δT L

𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞,
∆ = External joint displacement caused by the temperature change
1 = External virtual unit load applied at a joint and in the stated direction of ∆
N = Internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by external
virtual unit load
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion of member
δT = Cross − sectional area of a member L = Length of a member
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Example 1
Determine the displacement of point B of the steel beam below. E = 200
GPa, I = 500·106 mm4. 12 kN/m
M M
A ∆ = d𝑥
B EI
10 m

Soln 𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐕𝐢𝐫𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦

12 kN/m 𝟏
A A
B B
10 m L

600 10 𝑥 − 10 = M
6𝑥 − 600 = M
− −

BMD BMD

M M (𝑥 − 10)(6𝑥 − 600)
∆ = d𝑥 = d𝑥 = 250 mm
EI EI
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Example 2
Determine the displacement of point B (5 m from A) of the steel beam
below. E = 200 GPa, I = 60·106 mm4.
3 kN M M
A
B ∆ = d𝑥
C EI
10 m

Soln 𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐕𝐢𝐫𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦

3 kN 𝟏

A C B
10 m A 5m

30 3𝑥 − 30 = M
5 𝑥−5 =M
− −

BMD BMD
M M (𝑥 − 5)(3𝑥 − 30)
∆ = d𝑥 = d𝑥 = 26.04 mm
EI EI
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Example 3
Determine the slope of point B (5 m from A) of the steel beam below. E =
200 GPa, I = 60·106 mm4.
3 kN
B M M
A C θ = d𝑥
10 m EI

Soln 𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐕𝐢𝐫𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦

3 kN 𝟏
A
A 5m B
C
10 m
1 =M
30 3𝑥 − 30 = M 1
− −

BMD BMD

M M 1(3𝑥 − 30)
θ = d𝑥 = d𝑥 = −0.0094 rad
EI EI
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Example 4
The cross-sectional area of each member of the truss shown in Fig.
below is A= 400 mm2 and E = 200 GPa

a) Determine the vertical displacement of joint C if a 4 kN force is

applied to the truss at C.

b) If no loads act on the truss, what would be the vertical displacement

of joint C if member AB is 5 mm short?

C
𝟒 𝐤𝐍

3m
A B
4m 4m

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Example 4 - Solution
𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 C 𝐕𝐢𝐫𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 C
𝟒 𝐤𝐍 N N L
∆ =
EA
3m
𝟏 𝐤𝐍
A B A B ∆ = N δL
4m 4m 4m 4m

(a) N N L N N L
Member N N L
AB 0.667 2.0 8 10.67 ∆ =
EA
AC -0.833 2.5 5 -10.41
CB -0.833 -2.5 5 10.41
Σ 10.67 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟑 𝐦𝐦

(b) N δL (m) N δL
Member
AB 0.667 -0.005 -0.0033 ∆ = N δL
AC -0.833 0 0
CB -0.833 0 0
≈ −𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝐦𝐦
Σ -0.00333
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THANK YOU

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