SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Chapter – 7 System of particles and Rotational Motion

We have discussed the motion of a body by considering it as a point object. A point object
means an object having certain mass but negligible size. An extended object or a real object is made
up of large number of particular these particles exert force on each other.

System of particles: Collection of large number of particles interacting with each other is called
system of particles.

Rigid Body: Rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and unchanging shape. The distances
between all pairs of particles of such a body do not change.
In real situation no body is a perfectly rigid body. However, in bodies like wheels, steel
beams, metallic sphere, wooden block etc. deformation under the force is so small that they can be
considered as rigid bodies.

Motion of a rigid body: The motion of a rigid body which is not pivoted or fixed in some way is
either a pure translation or a combination of translation and rotation.
The motion of a rigid body which is pivoted or fixed in some way is rotation. The rotation
may be about an axis that is fixed or moving.

Translational motion: At any instant of time if all the particles of a body have the same velocity
then the motion is said to be Translational.
Ex: Wooden block sliding on a inclined plane

Rotational motion (Rotation): If every particle of the body moves in a circle which lies in a plane
perpendicular to the fixed axis and has its centre on the fixed axis, then the motion is said to be
Rotational.
Ex: A ceiling fan

Note: Any particle lying on the axis of rotation remains at rest while the rigid body rotates about
the axis of rotation. Thus axis of rotation is fixed.

Precession: The movement of the axis of the rotating body around the vertical axis is termed as
precession. While precession the point of contact of the rotating body with the ground is fixed.

Centre of mass: Centre of mass of a system of particles is the point where the entire mass of the
system can be assumed to be concentrated.
Note: This point like mass has the same type of translational motion as the system as a whole if
some net external force acts on this point like mass as acting on the system. Centre of mass of a body
or a system is its balancing point.

Centre of mass of a two particle system:

Consider two particles on the X-axis.
Let the distances of the two particles be 𝑥 and 𝑥 respectively
from origin.
The masses of the two particles be m1 and m2 respectively.
The centre of mass of the system which is at a distance Xcm from
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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

𝒎𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝑂 is given by, 𝑿𝒄𝒎 =
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐
If 𝑅⃗ be the position vector of the centre of mass then 𝑅⃗ = 𝑋 𝚤̂

Note: (1) If the two particles have the same mass 𝑚 = 𝑚 = 𝑚, then
𝑚𝑥 + 𝑚𝑥 2𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑥 )
𝑋 = =
𝑚+𝑚 2𝑚
𝑥 +𝑥
𝑋 =
2
Thus for two particles of equal mass the centre of mass lies exactly midway between them.

(2) If the particles not lying in the straight line, we define x and y axes in the plane in which the
particle lie and represent the positions of the two particle by co-
ordinates (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) respectively.

The centre of mass located by the co-ordinates (𝑋 , 𝑌 ) is given by,

𝒎𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒎𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝑿𝒄𝒎 = and 𝒀𝒄𝒎 =
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐
If 𝑅 be the position vector of the centre of mass then 𝑅⃗ = 𝑋 𝚤̂ + 𝑌 𝚥̂
⃗

Centre of mass of three particle system:

Consider three particles, not lying in same straight line.
Let the masses of these particle be 𝑚 , 𝑚 and 𝑚 respectively.
Positions of the three particles are represented by co-ordinates (𝑥 , 𝑦 ), (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and (𝑥 , 𝑦 ).
The centre of mass located by the co-ordinates (𝑋 , 𝑌 ) is given by,
𝑚 𝑥 +𝑚 𝑥 +𝑚 𝑦 𝑚 𝑦 +𝑚 𝑦 +𝑚 𝑦
𝑋 = and 𝑌 =
𝑚 +𝑚 +𝑚 𝑚 +𝑚 +𝑚
𝑅⃗ = 𝑋 𝚤̂ + 𝑌 𝚥̂

Note: For the particles of equal masses, 𝑚 = 𝑚 = 𝑚 = 𝑚

𝑚𝑥 + 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑚𝑥 𝑚(𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 )
𝑋 = =
𝑚+𝑚+𝑚 3𝑚
𝑥 +𝑥 +𝑥
𝑋 =
3
𝑚𝑦 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑚𝑦 𝑚(𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑦 )
𝑌 = =
𝑚+𝑚+𝑚 3𝑚
𝑦 +𝑦 +𝑦
𝑌 =
3
Thus for three particles of equal mass, the centre of mass coincides with the centroid of the triangle
formed by the particles.

Centre of mass of a system of n-particles: Consider a system of n-particles.

Let 𝑚 , 𝑚 … … … 𝑚 be the respective masses of the particles.
Let 𝑋 , 𝑌 and 𝑍 are the co-ordinates of the centre of mass of the system.
𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑚 𝑥 +. … … … … + 𝑚 𝑥
Then 𝑋 =
𝑚 + 𝑚 + … … … … . . +𝑚
∑ 𝑚𝑥
𝑋 =
∑ 𝑚

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

1
𝑋 = 𝑚𝑥
𝑀

1 1
Similarly, 𝑌 = 𝑚𝑦 and 𝑍 = 𝑚𝑧
𝑀 𝑀
The position vector of the centre of mass is, 𝑹⃗ = 𝑿𝒄𝒎 ̂ + 𝒀𝒄𝒎 𝑱 + 𝒁𝒄𝒎 𝒌

1 1 1
Further, 𝑅⃗ = 𝑚𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝑚𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝑚𝑧 𝑘
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀

1
𝑅⃗ = 𝑚 𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝑦 𝚥̂ + 𝑧 𝑘
𝑀
𝒏
𝟏
𝑹⃗ = 𝒎𝒊 𝒓⃗
𝑴
𝒊 𝟏

Note: Centre of mass of a system may or may not lie inside the system

Centre of mass of a rigid body:

1
For system of n − particles the centre of mass is given by, 𝑅⃗ = 𝑚 𝑟⃗
𝑀
This equation is applicable to rigid body also.
In case of a Rigid body the number of particles is so large that it is impossible to carry out the
summation over individual particles in the equation.
Since the spacing of the particle is small, we can treat the body as a continuous distribution of
mass.
We subdivide the body into n small elements of mass dm1, dm2, .........dmn.
Hence sum ∑ 𝑚 𝑟⃗ can be replaced by the integral ∫ 𝑑𝑚 𝑟⃗.

𝑚 𝑟⃗ = 𝑑 𝑟⃗

1
𝑅⃗ = 𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑚
𝑀
Where 𝑅⃗ = 𝑋 𝚤̂ + 𝑌 𝐽 + 𝑍
𝑘
1
Now 𝑋 𝚤̂ + 𝑌 𝐽 + 𝑍 𝑘 = 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧𝑘 𝑑𝑚
𝑀
Comparing the co-efficient of 𝚤̂, 𝚥̂ and 𝑘
1
𝑋 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑚
𝑀
1
𝑌 = 𝑦 𝑑𝑚
𝑀
1
𝑍 = 𝑧 𝑑𝑚
𝑀
If we choose, the centre of mass as the origin of our co-ordinate system, then, 𝑅⃗ = 0

implies that, 𝑟⃗𝑑𝑚 = 0

and 𝑥𝑑𝑚 = 𝑦 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑧 𝑑𝑚 = 0

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Important conclusions:
i. In case of homogeneous bodies like a circular solid disc, an ice cube or a sugar cube, solid
sphere, hollow sphere, a marble ball, a billiard ball, an iron ball uniform thin rod etc. The
centre of mass coincides with the geometric centers of the bodies.
ii. In the case of bodies having axis of symmetry like a solid cylinder, hollow cylinder a wheel etc,
the centre of mass lies on the axis of symmetry of the body.

Centre of mass of uniform rod:

Consider a uniform rod of length L.
Let one end A of the rod is taken as the origin.
Since the rod is uniform, the mass per unit length of the rod (𝜆) is constant.

Consider a small element of the rod of length dx at a distance 𝑥 from end 𝐴 and having the mass,
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜆𝑑𝑥.
1
The co − ordinate of the centre of the rod is given by, 𝑋 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑚
𝑀

1
𝑋 = 𝑥 𝜆𝑑𝑥
𝑀

1
𝑋 = 𝜆 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑀

1 𝑥 1 𝐿
𝑋 = 𝜆 = 𝜆
𝑀 2 𝑀 2
1 𝐿 1 𝐿
𝑋 = (𝜆𝐿) = 𝑀
𝑀 2 𝑀 2
𝑳
𝑿𝒄𝒎 =
𝟐

Motion of centre of mass:

Consider a system having n-particles of masses 𝑚 , 𝑚 , 𝑚 … … . 𝑚 .
Let 𝑟⃗, 𝑟⃗, 𝑟⃗ … 𝑟⃗ be their respective position vectors.
∑ 𝑚 𝑟⃗
The centre of mass of the system is given by, 𝑅⃗ =
𝑀

𝑀𝑅⃗ = 𝑚 𝑟⃗

𝑀𝑅⃗ = 𝑚 𝑟⃗ + 𝑚 𝑟⃗ + 𝑚 𝑟⃗ +. … … . +𝑚 𝑟⃗
Differentiating the two sides of the equation with respect to time,
𝑑𝑅⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑀 =𝑚 +𝑚 +𝑚 +. … … … + 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⃗
𝑀𝑉 = 𝑚 𝑣⃗ + 𝑚 𝑣⃗ + 𝑚 𝑣⃗ +. … … . . +𝑚 𝑣⃗
Differentiating the two sides of the equation with respect to time again
𝑑𝑉⃗ 𝑑𝑣⃗ 𝑑𝑣⃗ 𝑑𝑣⃗ 𝑑𝑣⃗
𝑀 =𝑚 +𝑚 +𝑚 +. … … … + 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑀𝐴⃗ = 𝑚 𝑎⃗ + 𝑚 𝑎⃗ + 𝑚 𝑎⃗ +. … … . . +𝑚 𝑎⃗

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Using Newton’s second law, 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗

𝑀𝐴⃗ = 𝐹⃗ + 𝐹⃗ + 𝐹⃗+. … … 𝐹⃗
𝑴𝑨⃗ = 𝑭⃗𝒆𝒙𝒕 where 𝐹⃗ = 𝐹⃗ + 𝐹⃗+. … + 𝐹⃗

From the above equation we can conclude that, the centre of mass of the system of particles moves
as if the mass of the system was concentrated at the centre of mass and all the external force were
applied at that point.

Linear momentum of a system of particles: Consider a system of n particles of masses m1, m2, m3,
…. mn moving with velocities 𝑣⃗ , 𝑣⃗ , 𝑣⃗ …….. 𝑣⃗ respectively.
The momentum of the system is given by, 𝑃⃗ = 𝑝⃗ + 𝑝⃗ + 𝑝⃗ +. … + 𝑝⃗
𝑃⃗ = 𝑚 𝑣⃗ + 𝑚 𝑣⃗ + 𝑚 𝑣⃗ +. … … . +𝑚 𝑣⃗
But we have, 𝑀𝑉⃗ = 𝑚 𝑣⃗ + 𝑚 𝑣⃗ + 𝑚 𝑣⃗ +. … … . . +𝑚 𝑣⃗
𝑀𝑉⃗ = 𝑃⃗ or 𝑃⃗ = 𝑀𝑉⃗
Thus the total momentum of a system of particles is equal to the product of the total mass of the
system and the velocity of the centre of mass.
Differentiating equation with respect to time
𝑑𝑃⃗ 𝑑𝑉⃗
=𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑃 ⃗
= 𝑀𝐴⃗
𝑑𝑡
But 𝑀𝐴⃗ = 𝐹⃗
𝑑𝑃⃗
= 𝐹⃗ This is the Newton’s second law for system of particles.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑃⃗
If 𝐹⃗ = 0 then, = 0 implies that 𝑃⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Thus, when the total external force acting on a system of particles is zero, the total linear
momentum of the system is constant. This is the law of conservation of the linear momentum of a
system of particles.
𝑑𝑃⃗
𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞: Now by considering equation, =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑀𝑉⃗ = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉⃗
𝑀 =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣⃗
But 𝑀 ≠ 0 therefore = 0, implies that 𝑉⃗ = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡
This shows that, when the total external force on the system is zero, the velocity of the center of
mass remains constant. In other words, a system interacting internally cannot accelerate itself.

Examples for motion of center of mass:

(1) In Radio-active decay the process is caused by the internal force of the
system. Therefore initial and final momentums are zero. The Nucleus zXA
decays into a new nucleus z-2YA-4 and a Helium Nucleus as shown in
figure. Since the disintegration occurs only due to the internal force, the
nucleus z-2YA-4 and Helium nucleus must move in such a directions that

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

sum of their momentum is zero and their center of mass moves along
the path followed by the nucleus zXA before decay.
However, when he decay of the nucleus is observed from a
frame of reference with respect to which the nucleus is at rest, then the decay products fly off in
the opposite directions. The Centre of mass of the system remains at rest. The heavy mass moves
with less speed than that of the light mass.

(2) Explosion of a projectile in midair (fire cracker).

Let us consider a projectile which explodes in air. Before explosion,
the projectile moves along a parabolic path. After explosion each
fragment moves along their own parabolic path but the centre of
mass of the projectile continues to move in the same parabolic path.

Vector product or Cross product of two vectors: The vector product of two vectors gives a vector
quantity.

Definition: The vector product of two vectors is a single vector whose magnitude is equal to the
product of the magnitude of two given vectors multiplied by the sine of the smaller angle between
the two vectors and the direction of the vector is perpendicular to the plane containing the two
vectors.

Explanation: Consider two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ such that the angle between
them is 𝜃 then, the cross product of the vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ is 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ 𝐴⃗ 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐵⃗
which is given by,
𝑨⃗ × 𝑩⃗ = (𝑨𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)𝒏
𝑛 is the unit vector which gives the direction of the vector 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗
𝑨⃗ × 𝑩⃗ 𝑨⃗ × 𝑩⃗
𝒏= =
𝑨𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝑨⃗ × 𝑩⃗
The direction of the vector 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ can be determined by right hand screw rule.

Right hand screw rule: Take a right handed screw with its head lying in the plane
of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ and the screw perpendicular to this plane. If we turn the head of the
screw in the direction from A to B through a small angle 𝜃, then the tip of the
screw advances in the direction of the vector 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗.

Difference between Scalar product and vector product:

Scalar product Vector product
Scalar product of two vector is a scalar Vector product of two vector is a vector
Scalar product is commutative Vector product is not commutative
Scalar product of two equal or parallel vector is Vector product of two equal or parallel vector is
not equal to zero equal to zero
Scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is Vector product of two perpendicular vectors is
equal to zero not equal to zero

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Properties of cross product:

(i) The vector product is not commutative.
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = (𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃)𝑛
𝐵⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = (𝐵𝐴 sin 𝜃)(−𝑛) = −(𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃)𝑛
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = − 𝐵⃗ × 𝐴⃗
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ ≠ 𝐵⃗ × 𝐴⃗
Note: Angle between 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ and 𝐵⃗ × 𝐴⃗ is 1800 or 𝜋 radian.

(ii) Vector product is distributive over vector addition.

𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗ = [𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) sin 𝜃]𝑛
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗ = [𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 + 𝐴𝐶 sin 𝜃]𝑛
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃𝑛 + 𝐴𝐶 sin 𝜃 𝑛
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ + 𝐴⃗ × 𝐶⃗

Vector product of two parallel vectors or equal vectors:

The angle between the parallel or equal vectors is zero
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = (𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃)𝑛
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = (𝐴𝐵 sin 0 )𝑛 (sin 0 = 0)
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 0
For equal vectors, 𝐴⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = (𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜃)𝑛
𝐴⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = (𝐴𝐴 sin 0)𝑛
𝐴⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = 0
Similarly 𝚤̂ × 𝚤̂ = (1 × 1 sin 0)𝑛 = 0
𝚥̂ × 𝚥̂ = (1 × 1 sin 0)𝑛 = 0
𝑘 × 𝑘 = (1 × 1 sin 0)𝑛 = 0
𝚤̂ × 𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂ × 𝚥̂ = 𝑘 × 𝑘 = 0

Vector product of two perpendicular vectors:

The angle between two perpendicular vectors is 900
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = (𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃)𝑛
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = (𝐴𝐵 sin 90 )𝑛 (sin 90 = 1)
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = (𝐴𝐵)𝑛
Similarly 𝚤̂ × 𝚥̂ = (1 × 1 sin 90 )𝑘 = 𝑘
𝚥̂ × 𝑘 = (1 × 1 sin 90 )𝚤̂ = 𝚤̂
𝑘 × 𝚤̂ = (1 × 1 sin 90 )𝚥̂ = 𝚥̂
𝚤̂ × 𝚥̂ = 𝑘, 𝚥̂ × 𝑘 = 𝚤̂, 𝑘 × 𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂

Now 𝚥̂ × 𝚤̂ = (1 × 1 sin 90 ) −𝑘 = −𝑘
𝑘 × 𝚥̂ = (1 × 1 sin 90 )(−𝚤̂) = −𝚤̂
𝚤̂ × 𝑘 = (1 × 1 sin 90 ) (−𝚥̂) = −𝚥̂
𝚥̂ × 𝚤̂ = −𝑘, 𝑘 × 𝚥̂ = −𝚤̂, 𝚤̂ × 𝑘 = −𝚥̂

Cross – product of any two unit vectors in anticlockwise direction gives the positive value of the
third unit vector. If the cross product of two unit vectors is taken in clock wise direction then it
gives negative value of third unit vector.

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Vector product of two vectors in their rectangular components (Analytical method):

The vector 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ can be written in terms of their rectangular component as,
𝐴⃗ = 𝐴 𝚤̂ + 𝐴 𝚥̂ + 𝐴 𝑘
𝐵⃗ = 𝐵 𝚤̂ + 𝐵 𝚥̂ + 𝐵 𝑘
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴 𝚤̂ + 𝐴 𝚥̂ + 𝐴 𝑘 × 𝐵 𝚤̂ + 𝐵 𝚥̂ + 𝐵 𝑘
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴 𝐵 (𝚤̂ × 𝚤̂) + 𝐴 𝐵 (𝚤̂ × 𝚥̂) + 𝐴 𝐵 𝚤̂ × 𝑘 + 𝐴 𝐵 (𝚥̂ × 𝚤̂) + 𝐴 𝐵 (𝚥̂ × 𝚥̂) + 𝐴 𝐵 𝚥̂ × 𝑘
+𝐴 𝐵 𝑘 × 𝚤̂ + 𝐴 𝐵 𝑘 × 𝚥̂ + 𝐴 𝐵 𝑘 × 𝑘
But 𝚤̂ × 𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂ × 𝚥̂ = 𝑘 × 𝑘 = 0
𝚤̂ × 𝚥̂ = 𝑘 , 𝚥̂ × 𝑘 = 𝚤̂, 𝑘 × 𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂ and 𝚥̂ × 𝚤̂ = −𝑘 , 𝑘 × 𝚥̂ = −𝚤̂, 𝚤̂ × 𝑘 = −𝚥̂
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴 𝐵 𝑘 + 𝐴 𝐵 (−𝚥̂) + 𝐴 𝐵 −𝑘 + 𝐴 𝐵 (𝚤̂) + (𝐴 𝐵 )(𝚥̂) + 𝐴 𝐵 (−𝚤̂)
𝑨⃗ × 𝑩⃗ = 𝑨𝒚 𝑩𝒛 − 𝑨𝒛 𝑩𝒚 ̂ + (𝑨𝒛 𝑩𝒙 − 𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒛 ) ̂ + 𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒚 − 𝑨𝒚 𝑩𝒙 𝒌

Vector product of two vectors in their rectangular components (Determinant method):

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘
⃗
𝐴×𝐵 = ⃗ 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝑖 − 𝚥̂ +𝑘 𝐵 𝐵
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝚤̂ 𝐴 𝐵 − 𝐴 𝐵 − 𝚥̂(𝐴 𝐵 − 𝐴 𝐵 ) + 𝑘 𝐴 𝐵 − 𝐴 𝐵
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴 𝐵 − 𝐴 𝐵 𝚤̂ + (𝐴 𝐵 − 𝐴 𝐵 )𝚥̂ + 𝐴 𝐵 − 𝐴 𝐵 𝑘
Magnitude of A⃗ × B⃗ is given by,
𝟐 𝟐
𝑨⃗ × 𝑩⃗ = 𝑨𝒚 𝑩𝒛 − 𝑨𝒛 𝑩𝒚 + (𝑨𝒛 𝑩𝒙 − 𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒛 )𝟐 + 𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒚 − 𝑨𝒚 𝑩𝒙

Angular displacement: It is defined as angle described by the radius vector in given time
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡(∆𝜃) = =
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟
SI unit of angular displacement is radian (rad).
Angular displacement is dimensionless quantity.

Angular velocity: It is defined as the ratio of the angular displacement of

the particle to the time interval for this displacement.

Explanation:
Consider a particle of the body whose position at any instant is P.
Let after time ∆t the position of the particle on the circle in which it is
moving is P’.
If ∆𝜃 is the angular displacment of the particle in time ∆t then average angular velocity of the
∆𝜃
rotating particle is given by, 𝜔 =
∆𝑡
As ∆t tends to zero the ratio (∆𝜃/∆𝑡) approaches a limit which is instantaneous angular velocity of
the particle.
∆𝜽 𝒅𝜽
𝝎 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The direction of angular velocity is along the axis of rotation which can be determined by Right-
hand screw rule.
S.I unit of 𝜔 is radian / second (rad - s-1) and Dimensional formula is [M0L0T-1]
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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Note: If a body is rotating in the direction of

Increasing 𝜃 (anticlockwise) then angular velocity of
the body is positive.
If the body is rotating in a direction of decreasing 𝜃
(clockwise) then angular velocity of the body is
negative.

Vector relation between linear velocity and angular velocity:

Consider a particle at position P of a rigid body.
As the body rotates the particle also moves from position P to position P’
Let its linear displacement 𝑃𝑃⃗ = 𝑑𝑟⃗ and its angular displacement is 𝑑𝜃.
Now 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝜃 × 𝑟⃗
Dividing both sides by dt,
𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝜃
= × 𝑟⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑣⃗ = 𝜔⃗ × 𝑟⃗
But from the ∆ OPC, 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗ − 𝑂𝐶⃗
Substituting for 𝑟⃗ , 𝑣⃗ = 𝜔⃗ × 𝑟⃗ − 𝑂𝐶⃗
𝑣⃗ = 𝜔⃗ × 𝑟⃗ − 𝜔⃗ × 𝑂𝐶⃗
But 𝜔⃗ × 𝑂𝐶⃗ = 0 as 𝜔⃗ is along 𝑂𝐶⃗
∴ 𝑣⃗ = 𝜔⃗ × 𝑟⃗ − 0
𝒗⃗ = 𝝎⃗ × 𝒓⃗
where 𝑟⃗ → position vector of the particle at P.
This relation shows that the linear velocity of particles situated at different position from axis of
rotation is different.

Note: (i) For the particle laying on the axis of rotation 𝑟⃗ = 0. Therefore the linear velocity of the
particle at the axis of rotation is zero.
(ii) Angular velocity of every particle of the rigid body is same as that of the angular velocity of the
rigid body this is because every particle in the rigid body rotates through the same angle in the
same interval of time.

Angular Acceleration: The angular acceleration can be defined as the time rate of change of
angular velocity.

Explanation: Let 𝜔 and 𝜔 be the angular velocities of the body at instants t1 and t2 respectively.
Then the average angular acceleration of the body is given by,
𝜔 −𝜔 ∆𝜔
𝛼= =
𝑡 −𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝜔 𝑑𝜔
The instantaneous angular acceleration is given by, 𝛼 = lim =
∆ → ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝝎 𝒅 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝟐 𝜽
𝜶= = = 𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The unit of angular acceleration is rad s-2.Dimensional formula is [𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 ]

Note: If the axis of rotation is fixed the direction of 𝜔 and hence that of 𝛼 is fixed, then vector
𝒅𝝎
equation reduces to scalar equation, 𝜶=
𝒅𝒕
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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Moment of force or Torque: Torque acting on a particle is defined as the product of the magnitude
of the force acting on the particle and the perpendicular distance of the application of force from
the axis of rotation of the particle.

Explanation:
Consider a particle at P in X-Y plane with position vector 𝑟⃗.
Let 𝐹⃗ acts on the particle at angle 𝜃 with the direction of the
position vector, then torque, 𝜏 acting on the particle with respect the
origin is given by, 𝝉⃗ = 𝒓⃗ × 𝑭⃗
The magnitude of torque 𝜏 is given by,
𝝉 = 𝒓𝑭 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝑭( 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽) = 𝑭𝒓
where 𝑟 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 is perpendicular distance of the line of 𝐹⃗ from O.
Unit of torque is Nm (newton-metre).
Dimensional formula is [ML2T-2]

Direction of torque: The direction of torque is perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑟⃗ and 𝐹⃗ and
can be determined by Right hand rule.

Explanation: When a Force 𝐹⃗ is applied at a

distance r from the bolt in anticlockwise, the
bolt moves up, thus the torque acting on the
bolt is in the upward direction.
On the other hand when force 𝐹⃗ is applied at a
distance r from the bolt in clockwise direction
the bolt moves downward, thus the torque
acting on the bolt is in the down ward
direction.

Maximum and minimum values of torque

1. If 𝜃 = 0 the force acts in the direction of position vector, then 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 0 = 0
2. If 𝜃 = 90 Force acts perpendicular to the position vector then 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 0 = 90 = 𝑟𝐹

Note: 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ is a vector product. Therefore properties of a vector product of two vectors apply to it.
If the direction of 𝐹⃗ is reversed, the direction of torque is reversed. If direction of both 𝑟⃗ and 𝐹⃗ are
reversed. The direction of the torque remains same.

Angular momentum (moment of momentum): Angular momentum of a particle about an axis of

rotation is defined as the product of linear momentum of the particle and the perpendicular
distance of the particle from the axis of rotation.

Explanation:
Consider a particle at P of mass m moving with a velocity 𝑣⃗ in a
circular path about z-axis.
The angular momentum is, 𝒍⃗ = 𝒓⃗ × 𝒑⃗
The magnitude of the angular momentum vector is,
𝒍 = 𝒓 𝒑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑟⃗ and 𝑝⃗
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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

The direction of angular momentum is perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑟⃗ and 𝑃⃗.
Unit of angular momentum is kgm2s-1 and Dimensional formula is [ML2T-1]

Note: 𝑙 = 𝑟(𝑝 sin 𝜃) = 𝑝(𝑟 sin 𝜃)

where 𝑝 sin 𝜃 → The component of momentum in the direction perpendicular to 𝑟⃗
𝑟 sin 𝜃 → Perpendicular distance of the directional line of 𝑃⃗ from the origin

Relation between Torque and Angular momentum of a particle:

We know, 𝑙⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗
𝑑𝑙⃗ 𝑑
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑡 we have = (𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑙⃗ 𝑑𝑝⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗
= 𝑟⃗ × + × 𝑝⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑙⃗
= 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ + 𝑣⃗ × (𝑚𝑣⃗)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑙⃗
= 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ + 𝑚(𝑣⃗ × 𝑣⃗)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑙⃗
= 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ ∵ (𝑣⃗ × 𝑣⃗ = 0)
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒍⃗
= 𝝉⃗
𝒅𝒕
Thus, the time rate of change of angular momentum of a particle is equal to the torque acting on it.

⃗
Note: This is the rotational analogue of the equation 𝐹⃗ = which expresses Newton’s second law
for translational motion of a particle.

Torque and angular momentum for a system of particles:

Consider a system of n-particles.
Let 𝑙⃗ , 𝑙⃗ , 𝑙⃗ … . . 𝑙⃗ be the angular moments of the particles of the system respectively about the
origin O.
The angular momentum of the system of particles is given by,
𝐿⃗ = 𝑙⃗ + 𝑙⃗ + 𝑙⃗ + ⋯ + 𝑙⃗
𝐿⃗ = 𝑙⃗

𝑑𝐿⃗ 𝑑
Differentiating with respect to 𝑡, = 𝑙⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐿⃗ 𝑑𝑙⃗
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐿⃗
= (𝜏⃗)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐿⃗
= 𝜏⃗ + 𝜏⃗
𝑑𝑡
We have separated the contribution of the external and internal torques to the total (net) torque.
𝑑𝐿⃗
= 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ + 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗
𝑑𝑡

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

The contribution of internal force to the total torque on the system is zero, because the forces
between any two particles of the system are equal and opposite, and these forces are directed
along the line joining the two particles.

𝐹⃗ = 0 ⇒ 𝜏⃗ = 0 and 𝜏 =𝜏

𝑑𝐿⃗
= (𝜏⃗)
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑳⃗
= 𝝉⃗𝒆𝒙𝒕
𝒅𝒕
Thus, the time rate of change of angular momentum of a system of particles is equal to the net
external torque acting on the system.

Conservation of angular momentum: If the total external torque on the system of particles is zero,
the total angular momentum of the system of particles does not change with time.

dL⃗
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: We have = 𝜏⃗
dt
𝑑𝐿⃗
If 𝜏⃗ = 0, then = 0 and 𝐿⃗ = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡
This is the law of conservation of angular momentum.

Equilibrium of a rigid body: A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, if both its linear
momentum and angular momentum are not changing with time.

Conditions for equilibrium:

𝑑𝑝⃗
(i) We have = 𝐹⃗
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑝⃗
If 𝐹⃗ = 0, then = 0 and 𝑝⃗ is constant
𝑑𝑡
If the total force on the body is zero then the total linear momentum of the body does not change
with time. This is the condition for translational equilibrium.

𝑑𝐿⃗
(ii) We have = 𝜏⃗
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐿⃗
If 𝜏⃗ = 0, then = 0 and 𝐿⃗ is constant.
𝑑𝑡
If the total torque on the rigid body is zero, the total angular momentum of the body does not
change with time. This is the condition for rotational equilibrium of the body.

Partial equilibrium: A body may be in translational

equilibrium and not in rotational equilibrium or it may be in
rotational equilibrium and not in translational equilibrium.
Then the body is said to be in partial equilibrium.

Ex: (i) consider a rod AB of negligible mass and length L.

Let two equal and parallel force acts on the two ends of the rod as shown.
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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Since the forces are parallel, net force on the rod is ∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝐹⃗ = 2𝐹⃗ ≠ 0
Hence the rod is not in the translational equilibrium.
𝐿
But the torque at 𝐴 is, 𝜏 = 𝐹 × which tends to rotate the rod anticlockwise.
2
𝐿
The torque at 𝐵 is, 𝜏 = 𝐹 × which tends to rotates the rod clockwise.
2
Hence the net torque on the rod is zero. So the rod is in rotational equilibrium.

(ii) Now the force at B in the figure is reversed.

Now we have same rod with two equal and opposite force applied perpendicular to the rod.
𝐿
Now the torque at 𝐴 is, 𝜏 = 𝐹 × in anticlockwise direction.
2
𝐿
at 𝐵, 𝜏 = 𝐹 × in clockwise direction.
2
Net torque is 𝜏 + 𝜏 ≠ 0
But Force at A is exactly equal force at B and in opposite direction.
So net force is = 𝐹 + ( – 𝐹 ) = 0.
Here the rod is in translational equilibrium but not in rotational equilibrium.

Couple: Two equal and opposite forces with different lines of action is known as couple.
When a couple acts on a body, the body is in translational equilibrium but not in rotational
equilibrium. Thus a couple rotates the body.
Ex: (i) A tap is opened or closed when our figures apply a couple on it.
(ii) A lid of a bottle is also opened and closed when our fingers apply a couple on it.

Principle of moments:
Consider two forces F1 and F2 parallel each other and perpendicular to the rod.
Let these forces act on the rod at distances d1 and d2 respectively from the fulcrum.
Let 𝑅⃗ be the reaction of the support at fulcrum which is directed opposite to the forces F1 and F2.
For rotational equilibrium, 𝑑 𝐹 + (−𝑑 𝐹 ) = 0
𝑑 𝐹 −𝑑 𝐹 =0
𝒅𝟏 𝑭𝟏 = 𝒅𝟐 𝑭𝟐
Anticlockwise moment of force = clockwise moment of force.
This is known as the principle of moments.

Note: For translation equilibrium, 𝑅 + (−𝐹 ) + (−𝐹 ) = 0

𝑅−𝐹 −𝐹 =0
𝑅 =𝐹 +𝐹

Lever: An ideal lever is a light rod pivoted at a point along its length. It works on the principle of
moments. Ex: A see- saw on the children’s playground.

Explanation: We have 𝑑 𝐹 = 𝑑 𝐹
In the case of lever Force F1 is known as load and force F2 is known as effort.
Distance from the fulcrum d1 is called load arm. Distance d2 is called as effort arm
Load 𝒂𝒓𝒎 × 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 = effort 𝒂𝒓𝒎 × 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕
The above equation expresses the principle of moments for a lever.

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Mechanical Advantage: In the equation, = , the ratio (𝐹 /𝐹 ) is called the mechanical

advantage (𝑀𝐴) of the lever.
𝑭 𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝑴𝑨 = =
𝑭 𝟐 𝒅𝟏
We can conclude that if d2 is larger than the d1, then MA is greater than one.
That is small effort can be used to lift a large load.

Centre of gravity: Centre of gravity (G) of a body is defined as the point where the whole weight
(Gravitational force) of the body is supposed to act.
While balancing a cardboard on the tip of a pencil, the tip of the pencil provides a support. The
reaction of the tip is equal and opposite to 𝑀𝑔⃗ (the total weight) of the cardboard and hence it is in
translational equilibrium and it is also in rotational equilibrium.
If 𝑟⃗ is the position vector of the 𝑖 particle of the body with respect to the centre of gravity, then
the torque about centre of gravity due to force of gravity is zero.
i.e 𝜏 = ∑ 𝜏 = ∑ 𝑟⃗ × 𝑚 𝑔⃗ = 0
As 𝑔⃗ is same for all particles, 𝑔⃗ ∑ 𝑚 𝑟⃗ = 0
∑ 𝑚 𝑟⃗ = 0
as 𝑚 ≠ 0, 𝑟⃗ = 0
Thus centre of gravity of the body coincides with the centre of mass in
uniform gravity or gravity free space. This is true because the body being
small, 𝑔⃗ does not very from one point of the body to the other.

Note: If the body is so extended that 𝑔⃗ varies from part to part of the body, then the cenre of
gravity and centre of mass will not coincide. Basically centre of mass and centre of gravity are two
different concepts. Centre of mass depends only on the distribution of mass of the body.

Determination of the centre of gravity of a body:

(i) Consider a body of irregular shape suspend the body from the points
A,B,C …… respectively.
(ii) Now make lines AA1, BB1, CC1, ………..
(iii) The point where all these lines intersect is the position of the centre
of gravity of the body.

Moment of Inertia (Rotational inertia): The property of the body by virtue of which it opposes or
resists changing its state of rotational motion is called rotational inertia or moment of inertia.

Explanation: Consider a rigid body of mass M consisting of n-particles.

Let the body is rotating with angular velocity 𝜔 about the given axis of rotation O.
Each particle of a rotating body moves in circular paths of different radii with a common centre at
the axis of rotation and each particle has different linear velocity.
The total kinetic energy of the body is the sum of the kinetic
energies of the entire particle constituting the body.
1 1 1
𝐾 = 𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑣 +. … … . + 𝑚 𝑣
2 2 2
1 1 1
𝐾 = 𝑚 (𝑟 𝜔) + 𝑚 (𝑟 𝜔) +. … … … + 𝑚 (𝑟 𝜔)
2 2 2

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

1
𝐾 = 𝜔 [𝑚 𝑟 + 𝑚 𝑟 +. … … + 𝑚 𝑟 ]
2
1
𝐾= 𝜔 𝑚𝑟
2

𝟏 𝟐
𝑲= 𝑰𝝎 where 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟
𝟐
I is called moment of Inertia. Its unit is SI system is kgm2. Dimensions are 𝑀𝐿 𝑇

Note: Comparing the expression for kinetic energy of a rotating body with the kinetic energy of
body in linear motion, we can conclude that, the parameter moment of Inertia is the rotational
analogue of mass.

Comparison of moment of inertia with mass: In linear motion, greater in the mass of the body,
greater is the force required to produce the linear acceleration in it. Thus in linear motion mass of
the body is a measure of its inertia. In rotational motion a torque is applied to produce angular
acceleration. Moment of inertia is a measure of rotational inertia of the body. In rotation the
moment of Inertia plays a similar role as mass does in the linear motion.

Fly wheel: A fly wheel is a circular disc, whose most of the mass is
concentrated on its rim and it rotates about an axel passing through its
centre and perpendicular to its plane.
The machines such as steam engine and automobile engine that produce
rotational motion have a fly wheel.

Working of Fly wheel: Jerky motion of a vehicle can be prevented by attaching a fly wheel with its
engine. Since the most of the mass of the fly wheel is concentrated at its rim, the fly wheel has large
moment of inertia. Therefore fly wheel opposes or resists the rotational motion to a great extent.
Whenever there is a sudden increase or decrease in the speed of vehicle, the fly wheel opposes this
sudden increase or decrease in the speed of vehicle due to its large moment of Inertia.

Factors on which moment of inertia depends: Moment of inertia depends on,

(i) Position of the axis of rotation with respect to the body.
(ii) Orientation of the axis of rotation.
(iii) Mass of the rotating body.
(iv) Distance from the axis of rotation to the distribution of mass.

Radius of gyration: It the distance of a mass point from the axis of rotation, whose mass is equal to
the mass of the whole body and whose moment of inertia is equal to the moment of inertia of the
whole body about the axis.

Explanation:

The moment of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation is given by, 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟

If m is the mass of the each particle, then, 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

𝐼=𝑚 𝑟

𝐼 = 𝑚(𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 +. … … … + 𝑟 )
If the body contains n particles, then by multiplying and dividing RHS by n,
(𝑟 + 𝑟 +. … … . . +𝑟 )
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑛
𝑛
𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 . … … . . +𝑟
𝐼=𝑀
𝑛
𝑰 = 𝑴𝒌𝟐
𝟏
𝒓𝟐𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐𝟐 +. … … . . +𝒓𝟐𝒏 𝟐
k is called radius of gyration and is given by, 𝒌=
𝒏
SI unit of radius of gyration is metre(m).

Theorems of perpendicular and parallel axis: These are two useful theorems, which are used to
find the moment of inertia of regular shaped bodies about any axis of rotation if the value of the
moment of inertia of the given body is known about a certain axis of rotation of the body.

Theorem of perpendicular axis:

It states that the moment of inertia of a planar body about an axis
perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of its moments of
inertia about two perpendicular axes concurrent with
perpendicular axis and lying in the plane of the body.

Explanation: Let X, Y and Z are the mutually perpendicular axes.

Consider an object in X-Y plane.
Let 𝐼 → moment of inertia of the body about 𝑍 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝐼 → moment of inertia of the body about X – axis
𝐼 → moment of Inertia of the body about Y-axis
Then 𝑰𝒛 = 𝑰𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚

Note: This theorem is applicable to the bodies which are planar or flat whose thickness is very
small compared to their other dimensions.

Theorem of parallel axes: It states that the moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to
the sum of the moment of inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing through its centre of
mass and the product of its mass and the square of the distance between the two parallel axes.
Explanation: Let Z’ be the axis about which the moment of inertia of
the body is to be calculated.
Z is the axis passing through the centre of mass of the body and
parallel to Z’.
Let a be the distance between the two axes.
Then, 𝑰𝒁 = 𝑰𝒛 + 𝑴𝒂𝟐

Note: This theorem is applicable to a body of any shape.

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Kinematics of Rotational motion about a fixed axis: The kinematical quantities in rotational
motion, angular displacement (𝜃), angular velocity (𝜔) and anglar acceleration (𝛼) respectively
correspond to kinematic quantities in linear motion displacement (x), velocity (v) and acceleration
(a). They are, 𝜔 = 𝜔 + 𝛼𝑡
𝜃 − 𝜃 = 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡
𝜔 = 𝜔 + 2𝛼(𝜃 − 𝜃 )

Dynamics of rotational motion about a fixed axis: Consider a cross–section of a rigid body
rotating about a fixed axis, perpendicular the plane of the paper.
Consider a particle at P in x-y plane which describes a circular path of radius r with centre at C.
In time ∆t the particle moves to the position P’ due to application of force 𝐹⃗ .
(i) Work done by the force is, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜙
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹(𝑟𝑑𝜃) cos 𝜙
𝑑𝑊 = (𝑟𝑑𝜃)𝐹 cos 𝜙
Now 𝜙 + 𝛽 = 90 , because displacement vector is in the direction of tangent to the circular path.

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

By resolving component of 𝐹⃗ with respect to r and with respect

to displacement vector as shown in figure, we get, 𝐹 cos 𝜙 =
𝐹 sin 𝛽
∴ 𝑑𝑊 = (𝑟𝑑𝜃) 𝐹 sin 𝛽
𝑑𝑊 = ( 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝛽)𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝜃 ∵ 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝛽
Total work done is, 𝒅𝑾 = 𝝉 𝒅𝜽
This equation is similar to the expression 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠

(ii) Now dividing the equation 𝑑𝑊 = 𝜏 𝑑𝜃 throughout by dt.

𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝜃
=𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑷 = 𝝉𝝎
𝑑𝑊
Where = 𝑃 (rate of doing work = power)
𝑑𝑡

(iii) The rate at which the work is done on the body is equal to rate at which kinetic energy
changes.
𝑑𝑊 𝑑
= (𝐾𝐸)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝐼𝜔
𝑃=
𝑑𝑡 2
2𝜔 𝑑𝜔
𝜏𝜔 = 𝐼
2 𝑑𝑡
𝜏𝜔 = 𝐼𝜔𝛼
𝝉 = 𝑰𝜶 which is similar to F = ma

Angular momentum in case of rotation about of fixed axis:

Consider a rigid body of mass M rotating with an angular
velocity 𝜔⃗ along z-axis.
The rigid body is made up of large number of elements.
Consider one such element of mass mi whose position vector is
𝑟⃗ and linear momentum is 𝑝⃗ .
The angular momentum of this element about the axis of
rotation is given by,
𝑙⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗ = (𝑟𝑝 sin 90 )𝑘
𝑙⃗ = (𝑟 𝑝 )𝑘
𝑙⃗ = (𝑟 𝑚 𝑣 )𝑘
𝑙⃗ = (𝑟 𝑚 𝑟 𝜔)𝑘
𝑙⃗ = 𝑚 𝑟 𝜔 𝑘
The total angular momentum is given by,
𝐿⃗ = 𝑚𝑟 𝜔 𝑘

𝐿⃗ = 𝜔𝑘 𝑚𝑟

𝐿⃗ = 𝜔𝑘 𝐼
𝑳⃗ = (𝑰𝝎)𝒌 or 𝑳 = 𝑰𝝎

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Law of conservation of angular momentum: In the absence of external torque, the net angular
momentum of the system is conserved.

Explanation: We have 𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝜔⃗

Differentiating both sides with respect to t
𝑑𝐿⃗ 𝑑
= (𝐼𝜔⃗)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐿⃗
But =𝜏
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
∴ (𝐼𝜔⃗) = 𝜏
𝑑𝑡
If the net external torque acting on that body is zero then,
𝑑
(𝐼𝜔) = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑰𝝎 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 This is the law of conservation of angular momentum.

Note: If the M.I of the body changes from 𝐼 to 𝐼 due to the change of the distribution of mass of
the body, then angular velocity of the body changes from 𝜔⃗ to 𝜔⃗ such that,
𝐼 𝜔⃗ = 𝐼 𝜔⃗ or 𝐼 𝜔 = 𝐼 𝜔

Illustrations for conservation of Angular momentum

1. Suppose a man is sitting on a rotating table with his arms stretched outward. When the man
with draws his arms towards his chest, the moment of inertia of the man decreases. Hence his
angular speed increases.
2. A ballet dancer varies her angular speed by stretching her legs and arms out or in. As she
stretches her legs and arms out, her moment of inertia increases and angular speed decreases.
3. When a diver Jumps from the spring board he curls his body by rolling his arms and legs in, by
doing so he decreases his moment of inertia and hence angular speed increases.
4. When a planet revolving around the sun in an elliptical orbit comes near the sun, its speed
increases. This is because as the planet comes near the sun, its moment of inertia decreases and
hence its angular velocity increases.

Comparison of translational (Linear) and rotational motion

Linear motion Rotational motion about a Fixed axis
1. Displacement, x Angular displacement, ∆𝜃
2. Velocity, 𝑣 = Angular velocity, 𝜔 =

3. Acceleration, 𝑎 = Angular acceleration, 𝛼 =

4. Mass, M Moment of Inertia, I
5. Force, F = Ma Torque, 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
6. Work, 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠 work, 𝑊 = 𝜏𝑑𝜃
7. Kinetic energy, 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 Kinetic energy, 𝐾 =
8. Power, 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 Power, 𝑃 = 𝜏𝜔
9. Linear momentum, 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 Angular momentum, 𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Rolling Motion: The combination of Rotational motion (without slipping) and the translational
motion of a rigid body is known as rolling motion.

Consider a spherical rigid body of radius R rolling over a horizontal surface.

Let 𝜔 be the angular velocity of the rigid body about the axis of rotation.

When this rigid body rolls over a smooth horizontal surface it has two types
of motions simultaneously,
(i) The rotational motion about its centre of mass.
(ii) Translational motion of the centre of mass of the body.

The body will roll over the surface without slipping if the point of contact (say A) of the body with
the surface is at rest at any contact with respect to the centre of mass.
The magnitude of linear velocity, 𝑣 = 𝑅𝜔 at A.
The velocity of the point B with respect to centre of mass = 𝜔𝑅 + 𝑣
= 2𝜔𝑅
or = 2𝑣
The velocity of the top most point on the body is maximum with respect to the centre of mass of
the body.

Kinetic energy of rolling motion: The kinetic energy of a system of particles (K) can be separated
into the kinetic energy of motion of the centre of mass 𝑚𝑣 and kinetic energy of rotational

motion about the centre of mass of the system of particles 𝐼𝜔

1 1
𝐾=
𝑚𝑣 + 𝐼𝜔
2 2
Where 𝑚 ⟶ mass of the body
𝑣 ⟶ velocity of centre of mass
𝐼 ⟶ moment of Inertia of the body
𝜔 ⟶ angular velocity of the body
1 1 𝑣
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 + (𝑚𝑘 )
2 2 𝑅
1 1 𝑘
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑚𝑣
2 2 𝑅
1 𝑘
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 1+
2 𝑅
This equation applies to any rolling body: a disc, a cylinder a ring or a sphere.

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Suggested Questions.
One mark
1. What is a rigid body? a body with a perfectly defined and unchanging shape

2. What is the angle between 𝑃⃗ × 𝑄⃗ and 𝑄⃗ × 𝑃⃗?

3. Is 𝑃⃗ × 𝑄⃗ = 𝑄⃗ × 𝑃⃗?
4. Define angular displacement.
5. Mention the SI unit of angular velocity.
6. Write the dimensional formula for torque.
7. Define angular momentum of a rigid body.
8. State the law of conservation of angular momentum.
Two marks.
1. Define Angular velocity and angular acceleration.
2. Give two general conditions of equilibrium of a rigid body.
or
Write the conditions for equilibrium of a rigid body.
3. What is couple? Mention effect of couple acting on a body.
4. Define moment of inertia and mention its SI unit.
5. Mention the formula for moment of inertia of a solid cylinder about its axis and explain the
symbols.
6. Define radius of gyration. Is it constant for a body?
Three Marks.
1. What is the value of (a) 𝚤̂ × 𝚤̂ (b) 𝚥̂ × 𝚥̂ (c) 𝑘 × 𝑘
2. What is the value of (a) 𝚤̂ × 𝚥̂ (b) 𝚥̂ × 𝑘 (c) 𝑘 × 𝚤̂
3. What is the value of (a) 𝚥̂ × 𝚤̂ (b) 𝑘 × 𝚥̂ (c) 𝚤̂ × 𝑘
4. What is centre of mass? Write the expression for its position in a two body system using a
diagram and explain each term.
5. Distinguish between scalar product and vector product.
6. Define vector product of two vectors. Write an expression for it explaining each of them.
7. Derive the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity.
8. Explain the principle of lever.
9. Write the expression for moment of inertia of a circular disc about an axis perpendicular to it
at the centre and give the expression for its radius of gyration.
10. Compare the translation motion and rotational motion.
or
Compare the equations of linear and rotational motions.
Five marks.
1. Define torque. Show that the rate of change of angular momentum is equal to torque acting on
the system. or
𝑑𝑙⃗ 𝑑𝑙⃗
Deduce an expression for torque, 𝜏⃗ = 𝐨𝐫 Derive the relation = 𝜏⃗ with usual notation
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
or
Derive the relation between torque and angular momentum.
2. State and explain theorems of perpendicular and parallel axis.
or
State and explain theorems of moment of inertia.
3. Derive an expression for Kinetic energy of a rolling body.

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