Wave motion:

Wave motion may be defined as a form of disturbance which travel through a medium and is
due to the repeated periodic motion of the particles of the medium about their mean position,
the motion being passed on from one particle to the next.
It may be noted that for the propagation of waves it is essential that i) it should be elastic, ii) it
should have inertia and iii) it should not offer such high frictional resistance as to damp the
wave altogether. In the study of sound, there are two distinct types of wave motion a)
longitudinal and b) transverse.
Longitudinal wave motion:
Longitudinal wave motion is that in which the medium particles move periodically to and fro
about their mean position in the same direction in which the disturbance is travelling, i.e.
parallel to the direction of vibration of the particles.
Sound is an example of longitudinal wave motion, as in the case of tuning fork.
Transverse wave motion:
Transverse wave motion is that in which the medium particles move up and down periodically
at right angles to the direction of propagation of disturbance.
Ripples travelling on the water surface and waves travelling along a rope are examples of this
type of wave motion.

Crest

Trough

Some definitions:
Wavelength (): It is the distance travelled by the disturbance during the time the vibrating
body completes one vibration. Or, it is the distance between consecutive particles in the same
phase. Or, it is the distance between the two consecutive crests or troughs.

1
Fig. AA
Amplitude (a): It is the maximum displacement of the vibrating particle from its mean position.
Frequency (n or f): It is the number of vibration completed by the vibrating particle in one
second.
Angular frequency (): The rate of change of phase with time is called the angular frequency
and is designated by .Since in one complete cycle, a phase change of 2 occurs in a time T
2
(the time period of the cycle), angular frequency  = = 2n and has the unit of radian per
T
second.
Time period (T): It is the time required to complete one vibration. If f is the frequency, then
time required for completing one vibration is 1/f, which by definition, is equal to time period.
1 1
T = or , f =
f T
Phase: Phase of a vibrating particle may be defined as the angle turned by it since it last passed
through its mean position or it may be defined as the fraction of time period that has elapsed
since it last passed through its mean position.
Y v

P
X  X/

Y/
For example, consider a particle P executing a uniform circular motion. When P is at point X,
its phase is zero. When at P, its phase is . When at point Y, its phase would be /2, etc.

2
Angular wave number: The angular wave number is defined as the rate of change of phase with
2
distance and is equal to .

Wave number: The wave number is the number of waves in a unit length of the wave pattern
1 1
and is given by = .
 2
Properties/characteristics of longitudinal wave:
Each medium particle vibrates to and fro about its mean position with the same amplitude and
period.
All medium particles do not move simultaneously. There is a definite time lag between
different medium particles.
The to and fro motion of the medium particles produces a series of compressions and
rarefactions which travel in the direction of the propagation of the wave.
At condensations, medium particles are crowded together but at rarefactions, they are spread
out.
There is always a transfer of energy in the direction of the travel of the wave.

Progressive wave:
A progressive wave may be defined as a continuous transfer of a particular state from one part
of the medium to another part due to similar movements (constant amplitude) performed
successively by the consecutive particles of the medium.
Progressive wave may be either transverse or longitudinal. In eithe r case, there exists a regular
phase difference between any two successive particles of the medium. A typical waveform is
shown in the figure below.

Fig. 1

3
Let a wave originating at O, travel to the right along the X-axis. If we start counting the time
at the moment when the particle at O just passes through its mean position in the positive
direction (i.e. upwards in the case of transverse wave and forward in the case of longitudinal
wave), the Eqn. of motion of this particle at O is y = a sin t , where y is the displacement of
the particle at time t, a its amplitude and  its angular velocity. Since the motion of O is
received and repeated by the successive particles to the right of O, the phase lag goes on
increasing as we proceed away from O towards right. Thus for a particle at P which is at a
distance x away from O, let this phase difference be . Hence the equation of motion of the
particle at P is
y = a sin (t −  ) .

For a difference in path of , i.e. one wavelength, the corresponding difference in phase is 2.
2
Hence for a distance x, the corresponding phase difference is .x . Substituting this value of

 in the above expression for y, we get,

 2 
y = a sin  t − x
  
y = a sin (t − kx) (1)

2
Where k = is referred to as the propagation constant or the angular wave number. Now

2 v
= = 2 n . Again n = (from v = n) where n is the frequency of the particle or the
T 
2
wave. Hence  = . Eqn. (1) then becomes

 2 2 
y = a sin  t− x
   
2
y = a sin (vt − x ) (2)

y = a sin k (vt − x ) (3)

Any one of the expressions written above or any one of their variations, such as those given
below (Eqns. (4) – (7)), is referred to as the equation of a plane progressive wave motion in the
positive direction of x,
Eqn. (2) can be written as

4
 2  x 
y = a sin t −  (4)
  v

 x
y = a sin 2 n t −  (5)
 v
[as n = v, or, v/ = n]
2  x 
y = a sin t −  (6)
  v

 1
 n = 
 T

 t x
y = a sin 2  −  (7)
T  
The expression most commonly used is given by Eqn. (2). Similarly, if the wave travels towards
the left, x becomes negative and we have
2
y = a sin (vt + x ) (8)

Or, y = a sin k (vt + x ) (9)

The phase or the wave velocity is also given by

  2
v= = (from  = )
T 2 T

   2
v= = = (since k = ) (10)
2 2 k 

It should be noted that in deducing the above expressions, it has been assumed that at t = 0, the
particle O just passes through its mean position in the positive direction, i.e. at t 0, y = 0. If this
is not the case and the particle is said to have an initial phase , say, then the equation of
progressive wave becomes
2
y = a sin (vt − x +  ) (11)

y = a sin k (vt − x +  ) (12)

Where  is referred to as the initial phase or phase constant. If  =900, we have y = a, at x = 0

and t = 0.

5
Wave velocity and particle velocity:
The difference between wave velocity, v and the particle velocity V may be particularly noted.
The wave velocity v = n and is a constant quantity but the particle velocity varies. It is
maximum when the particle passes through the mean position and is zero at the extreme ends
of its vibrations. The particle velocity can be calculated from the equation of its motion, which
is
2
y = a sin (vt − x ) (from Eqn. (2))

dy 2va 2
Particle velocity V = = cos (vt − x ) (13)
dt  
2 2
Now the slope S of the curve (Fig. 1) is S =
dy
=− a cos (vt − x ) (14)
dx  
Dividing Eqns. (13) by (14), we get
V
= −v
S
V = −v  S

So, particle velocity = wave velocity slope

From Eq. (13) it is seen that maximum value of particle velocity is given by
2 v a
Vmax = (= 2fa)

The acceleration A of the particle can be found by differentiating Eqn. (13)

 2v  2
2
dV d 2 y
A= = 2 = −  a sin (vt − x)
dt dt    

4 2 v 2 a
Obviously, the maximum value of acceleration is Amax =
 2
(= 4 2
f 2a )
Phase and group velocity:
A group consisting of a number of waves of slightly different frequencies superimposed upon
each other is called wave packet. The velocity of each individual wave of a wave packet is

known as phase velocity and it is denoted by vp. It is defined as v p = , where  is the angular
k
speed and k the propagation constant of the wave.

6
The average velocity with which the wave packet propagates in the medium is known as group
d
velocity, which is denoted by vg. Mathematically it is defined as v g = .
dk
Relation between phase and group velocity:
By definition phase velocity is expressed as

vp = or  = kv p (1)
k
Then the group velocity is given by

d d
vg = = (kvp ) = v p + k dv p
dk dk dk
dv p d
vg = v p + k (2)
d dk
The propagation constant k in terms of wavelength can be expressed as
2
k= (3)

Differentiating Eqn. (3) with respect to , we have
dk d  2  − 2
=  = 2 (4)
d d    
Using Eqns. (3) and (4) in Eqn. (2), we get

2 dv p  2 
vg = v p +  − 
 d  2 
dv p
i.e. v g = v p − 
d
This is the required relation between the phase velocity and the group velocity.
Differential Equation of a wave motion:
The equation of a harmonic wave can be represented by
2
, i.e. y = a sin (vt − x ) (Eqn. (2)) (A)

Differentiating with respect to time, we get
dy 2va 2
= cos (vt − x ) (B)
dt  

d2y 4 2 v 2 2
= − a sin (vt − x ) (C)
dt 2
 2


7
If Eqn. A is differentiated with respect to x, we get
2 2
dy
=− a cos (vt − x ) and
dx  

d2y 4 2 2
= − a sin (vt − x) (D)
dx 2
 2

Combining Eqns. (C) and (D), we get

d2y 2
2 d y
= v
dt 2 dx 2
This is the ‘differential equation’ for one dimensional wave.
Which of the following are solutions of the one dimensional wave equation?

(i) y = x 2 + v 2 t 2 , (ii) y = x 2 − v 2 t 2 , (iii) y = ( x − vt) 2 , (iv) y = 7 x − 10t

Solutions: (i) y = x 2 + v 2t 2
Differentiating with respect to t, we get
dy
= 2v 2 t
dt
d2y
Differentiating again, 2
= 2v 2 .
dt
Now differentiating with respect to x
dy d2y
= 2 x and = 2.
dx dx 2
Clearly, 2v 2 = v 2 .(2)

d2y 2
2 d y
Or, = v
dt 2 dx 2
This is the differential equation of a one-dimensional wave.
Similarly, others can be shown
Energy density and energy current (intensity) of a plane progressive wave:
It has already been mentioned that in a progressive wave motion, the energy derived from the
source is passed on from particle to particle so that there is a regular transmission of energy
across every section of the medium. The term energy density of a plane progressive wave
means the total (kinetic + potential) energy per unit volume of the medium through which the
wave is passing.
In order to obtain an expression for energy density, let us start with the equation of a plane
progressive wave, which is

8
 2
y = a sin (vt − x ) , where the symbols have their usual meanings.

Then the velocity of the particle,
dy 2v 2
U= = a cos (vt − x )................(1)
dt  
And the acceleration of the particle,
dU d 2 y 4 2 v 2 2 4 2 v 2
= 2 =− .a sin (vt − x ) = − . y..............(2)
dt dt 2  2
Kinetic energy per unit volume:
Let us consider unit volume of the medium in the form of an extremely thin element of the
medium parallel to the wave front. Now density is mass per unit volume and since unit volume
is being considered here,
Mass of the element = ρ, the density of the medium.
Again, since the layer is very thin, the velocity of all the particles in it may be assumed to be
the same. Thus, the kinetic energy per unit volume of the medium
1
= (mass )(velocity) 2
2
1
=  .U 2
2
1  2v 2
2

=  a cos (vt − x )

2    
2 2 a 2 v 2  2 
= . . cos2  (vt − x )......................(3)
  
2

Potential energy per unit volume

Now, the work done per unit volume for a small displacement dy of the layer = force ×
displacement.
d2y
But, force = mass × acceleration = ρ×
dt 2
4 2 v 2
= − .y
2
d2y
The minus sign in the expression for indicates the direction of force and should be ignored.
dt 2
Hence the work done per unit volume for a small displacement dy of the layer,
4 2 v 2 
= ydy
2

9
Then the total work done when the layer is displaced from 0 to y,
y 4 2 v 2 
= ydy
0 2
4 2 v 2  y
2 0
= ydy

4 2 v 2  y 2
= .
2 2
2 v  2
2 2
= .y
2
2 2 v 2  2  2 
= .a sin 2  (vt − x )
  
2

Obviously, this work must be stored up in the medium in the form of potential energy. Hence,
2 2 v 2   2 
potential energy per unit volume of the medium = .a 2 sin 2  (vt − x ) ……… (4)
 2
 
Energy density:
Thus, the total energy per unit volume of the medium or the energy density of the plane
progressive wave, E = K.E. + P.E.
2 2 v 2    2   2 
E= .a 2  cos 2  (vt − x ) + sin 2  (vt − x ) 
    
2

2 2 v 2 
= .a 2 .............(5)
Or,  2

2
v
= 2 2   . .a 2

= 2 n a  ......................(6)
2 2 2

Where n = v/λ is the frequency of the wave.

It is interesting to note that although both kinetic and potential energies of the wave depend
upon the values of x and t, it total energy or the energy density is quite independent of either.
Energy current (intensity):
If v is the velocity of the wave, then a new length v of the medium is set into motion of every
second; therefore, the energy transferred per second must be the energy contained in length v.
This rate of flow of energy per unit area of cross-section of the wave front along the direction
of the wave propagation is called the energy current (C) or the energy flux of the wave and is
obviously equal to E × v. Thus, the energy current or the energy flux of a plane progressive
wave, C = 2 2 n 2 a 2 v ergs/sec.cm 2 .....................(7)

10
Now the intensity (I) of the wave is defined as the quantity of incident energy per unit area of
the wave front per unit time and is the same as the energy current or the energy flux of the
wave.
Hence I = 2 2 n 2 a 2 v ......................(8)
As can be seen from the above equation, intensity of a wave is proportional to the square of the
amplitude of the wave, i.e., I ∞ a2.

Distribution of energy in a plane progressive wave

The manner in which the total energy of a plane progressive is distributed over a complete
wavelength will be studied now.
The average of K. E. over a complete wavelength is given by
1 𝜆 2𝜋 2 𝑎2 𝑣 2 2𝜋
∫ 2
. 𝜌. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 [ (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥 )] 𝑑𝑥
𝜆 0 𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋2 𝑎2 𝑛2 𝜌 1 𝜆1 4𝜋 𝑣2
= ∫ [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [(𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥 )] 𝑑𝑥 [𝜆2 = 𝑛2 ]
𝜆 𝜆 0 2 𝜆
𝜆 4𝜋
Now, ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [(𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥 )] 𝑑𝑥
𝜆

𝜆 4𝜋
=− [𝑠𝑖𝑛 [(𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥 )]0𝜆
4𝜋 𝜆
𝜆 4𝜋 4𝜋
=− [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝜆) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 . 𝑣𝑡]
4𝜋 𝜆 𝜆
𝜆 4𝜋 4𝜋
=− [𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑡 − 4𝜋 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 . 𝑣𝑡]
4𝜋 𝜆 𝜆
=0
2𝜋2 𝑎2 𝑛2 𝜌𝜆
Therefore, the average K.E. of the wave over a complete wavelength = 2𝜆

= 𝜋 2 𝑎2 𝑛2 𝜌
1
= 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
2
Similarly, it can be shown that the average P.E. of the wave over a complete wavelength

1 𝜆 2𝜋 2 𝑎2 𝑣 2 2[
2𝜋
∫ . 𝜌. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥 )] 𝑑𝑥
𝜆 0 𝜆2 𝜆
= 𝜋 2 𝑎2 𝑛2 𝜌
1
= 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
2

11
Thus, at any given instant, the energy of a plane progressive harmonic wave is, on average,
half kinetic and half potential in form.

Stationary wave (standing wave):

When two exactly similar progressive wave trains, traveling with the same velocity along the
same straight line but opposite directions, are superimposed upon each other, their resultant
wave is confined to the region in which it is produced and is no longer progressive. Such a
wave is known as a stationary wave.
Stationary vibrations may be either longitudinal or transverse. Transverse stationary vibrations
may be produced in a string fixed at one end or both ends, whereas longitudinal stationary
vibrations can be set up in the air column of an organ pipe. In both cases, the standing waves
are produced due to the interaction of the incident wave and the reflected wave traveling in
opposite directions.

Properties/characteristics of stationary wave (standing wave):

The stationary waves do not progress through the medium, i.e. the crests (or compressions) and
troughs (or rarefactions) do not travel from one part of the medium to another. Instead, they
remain confined to the regions where they are formed. The crests and troughs appear and
disappear at the same place only to be succeeded by the opposite conditions every half period.
Hence there is no transfer of energy through the medium. The values of amplitude and velocity
at a point (except nodes) change continuously with time from maximum positive to maximum
negative value.
Every particle in the medium executes simple harmonic motion with same time period as that
of the component waves. The velocity and displacement of nodal points are zero. But their
values increase as we go from nodes to anti nodes. Where these quantities achieve their
maximum values.
The distance between two consecutive nodes is /2.
The general appearance of the stationary wave is sinusoidal but twice in each period, all the
particles shrink to a straight line.
Twice in one period, at interval of T/2, all the particles (except nodes) achieve their maximum
displacement (it being different for each particle) and are momentarily at rest. After a time T/2,
the particle having their maximum positive displacement swing to the other extreme thus
achieving their maximum negative displacement.

12
The medium is split up into number if segments. At any particular instant, all the particles in
one segment lying between any two consecutive node, move in a direction opposite to that of
the particles lying in the adjacent segments on the left or right.
Stationary wave (standing wave):
When two exactly similar progressive wave trains, traveling with the same velocity along the
same straight line but opposite directions, are superimposed upon each other, their resultant
wave is confined to the region in which it is produced and is no longer progressive. Such a
wave is known as a stationary wave.
Stationary vibrations may be either longitudinal or transverse. Transverse stationary vibrations
may be produced in a string fixed at one end or both ends, whereas longitudinal stationary
vibrations can be set up in the air column of an organ pipe. In both cases, the standing waves
are produced due to the interaction of the incident wave and the reflected wave traveling in
opposite directions.

P Q
A1 N1 A2 N2 A3 N3 A4 N4 A5 N5 A6 N6

Consider a PQ with the end Q fixed. By moving its free end P up and down, a transverse wave
is set up in it which travels from P to Q. At the fixed end Q, this wave is reflected back. The
two waves – the incident and the reflected- make the string vibrate, as shown above. The string
is divided into a number of segments, and the crests and troughs seem to be fixed in space. That
is why they are called stationary waves because the conditions of maximum and zero
displacement are fixed along the length of the string and do not travel from one point to another.
At any instant (except when the string is straight), the shape of the string is a sine curve, but
whereas in a progressive (or traveling) wave, the amplitude remains constant while the wave
progresses, here the waveform remains fixed in position (longitudinally) while the amplitude
fluctuates.
For example, N1, N2, N3, etc., of the string are permanently at rest and are called nodes. But
points A1, A2, A3, etc., lying midway between the nodes, have the maximum amplitude. Such
points are called antinodes.
It is seen that the distance between either two consecutive nodes or two antinodes is /2, i.e.

13
 A1 A2 = A2 A3= A3 A4 = /2
Also, N1 N2 = N2 N3= N3 N4 = /2
However, the distance between a node and antinode and an adjoining antinode is /4.
Stationary waves in vibrating strings: Reflection occurs at a fixed boundary:
Let us consider the transverse stationary waves set up in a vibrating string fixed at one (or both)
end. The equation of the incident progressive wave traveling along a positive X-direction is
2
y1 = a sin (vt − x ) (1)

When this wave is incident at the fixed end, it produces a reflected wave that travels with the
same velocity but in a negative X-direction. Its amplitude is reversed because, as shown in the
above figure, a trough is converted into a crest and vice versa. [In the case of reflection from
the free end or from a rare medium, as in the case of an open organ pipe, the amplitude is not
reversed because a trough remains a trough and a crest remains a crest]. Hence, the equation of
the reflected wave is
2
y 2 = −a sin (vt + x ) (2)

The resultant equation of motion of the string is given by
y = y1 + y2
2
a sin (vt − x ) − a sin 2 (vt + x )
 
2𝜋 2𝜋
=𝑎[𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥 ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥 )]
𝜆 𝜆
1 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 1 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
=𝑎 [2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2( 𝜆 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥+ 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥) . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2( 𝜆 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥− 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) [Using the
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

 A− B  A+ B
relation, sin A − sin B = 2 sin   cos ]
 2   2 
2 2
= −2a sin .x. cos vt (3)
 
2 2x
= A cos .vt, where , A = −2a sin
 
Here, -2a is the maximum displacement of the particles on the negative side. By definition, the
maximum displacement on either side of the wave is the amplitude of the wave. Hence, the
above equation can be written as
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑦 = 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 . 𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑣𝑡 (4)
𝜆 𝜆

14
Thus, the resulting wave is also a simple harmonic wave of the same time period and
wavelength as the two constituent waves. But its amplitude has changed and is given by
2𝜋𝑥
𝐴 = 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (5)
𝜆

From this, it is obvious that each point of the string executes a harmonic motion of amplitude
A, this amplitude varying from point to point along the string (because A contains x).
As can be seen from equ. (3) that a particle at any particular point x executes simple harmonic
motion as time goes on, and that all particles vibrate with the same frequency. In a traveling
wave each particle vibrates with the same amplitude.
However, in the case of a standing wave, the amplitude is not the same for all particles but
varies with position x of the particle. The amplitude is now a function of x.
Differentiating equ. (3) with respect to time, we obtain an expression for the velocity of the
particle.
𝑑𝑦 4𝜋𝑎𝑣 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑈= = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 . 𝑥. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑡 (6)
𝑑𝑡 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

The acceleration of the particle at any given instant of time is

𝑑2 𝑦 8𝜋2 𝑎𝑣 2 2𝜋 2𝜋
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 . 𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑣𝑡 (7)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝜆2 𝜆 𝜆

The strain or compression at any given resultant vibration is given by dy/dx.

Differentiating eq. (3) w. r. to x
𝑑𝑦 4𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (8)
𝑑𝑥 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

Thus, from eqs. 5-8 show that the amplitude, velocity, acceleration, and strain or compression
vary with position and time.
Variation of amplitude:
Let us now consider how the amplitude, etc., of a particular point of the string varies with time
and also how, at a given instant, amplitude varies at different points along the string.

Variation with position:

If on the other hand, we fix our attention on some particular point of the string, then Eqn. (3)
2𝜋 2𝜋
may be written as 𝑦 = [−2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 . 𝑥] . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑣𝑡 .
𝜆 𝜆

15
Each point of the string executes simple harmonic motion but with an amplitude (the expression
in the bracket) which depends on the position x of the point. The amplitude is maximum for
those values of x, for which
2x 2𝜋𝑥
sin = 1 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =0
 𝜆

At these points,
2𝜋𝑣𝑡
The displacement 𝑦 = ±2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [from eq. 3]
𝜆

The amplitude 𝐴 = ±2𝑎 [from (5); independent of time]

𝑑𝑦 4𝜋𝑎𝑣 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
The velocity =± 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [from (6)]
𝑑𝑡 𝜆 𝜆

𝑑2 𝑦 8𝜋2 𝑎𝑣 2 2𝜋
The acceleration 𝑑𝑡 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑣𝑡 [from (7)]
𝜆2 𝜆
𝑑𝑦
The strain =0 [from (8)]
𝑑𝑥

It is, therefore, clear that at these points, the displacement will always be maximum.
2x
Now, sin = 1

2x  3 5
= , , , etc
 2 2 2
2𝜋𝑥 𝜋
= (2𝑘 + 1)
𝜆 2
k = 0, 1, 2, ……

x = (2k + 1)
4
Hence, the positions of the points where amplitude is maximum, are given by
 3 5
x= , , , etc
4 4 4
Such points are called antinodes. Obviously, such points are spaced a distance /2 apart.

16
Fig. When two identical waves are moving in opposite directions, the resultant wave is a
standing wave. Nodes appear at integer multiples of half wavelengths. Antinodes appear at odd
multiples of quarter wavelengths, where they oscillate between y=±A. The nodes are marked
with red dots, and the antinodes are marked with blue dots.

The amplitude would be zero when

2x 2𝜋𝑥
sin = 0 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = ±1
 𝜆

At these points,
The displacement 𝑦 = 0[from eq. 3]
The amplitude 𝐴 = 0 [from (5); independent of time]
𝑑𝑦
The velocity = 0 [from (6)]
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑦
The acceleration 𝑑𝑡 2 = 0 [from (7)]
𝑑𝑦 4𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
The strain =± 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [from (8)]
𝑑𝑥 𝜆 𝜆

Thus, at these points, the displacement, amplitudes, and velocity is zero but the strain is
maximum. These points of permanent zero displacement are called nodes or nodal points.
2x
Now, sin =0

2x
=0, , 2, etc.

2x
= k ,


17
 k
Or, x = , where k = 0, 1, 2, etc.
2
The various positions where amplitude is zero are given by the following values of x i.e. when
 2 3
x = 0, , , , etc.
2 2 2
Such points are called nodes are obviously spaced /2 from each other. It may also be noted
from Eqns. (C) and (D) that the distance between a node and adjoining antinode is /4.
Variation with time:
At any instant in time, equation (3) above can be written as

 2  2
y = − 2a. cos vt sin .x
   
It is seen that the shape of the string at each instant is a sine curve whose amplitude (the
expression in bracket) varies sinusoidally [cosine and sine functions have the same phase] with
time.

Fig.
On the other hand, the string is at its extreme positions (i.e. with maximum amplitude) at the
time given by the relation,
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑣𝑡 = ±1 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑡 = 0
𝜆 𝜆

At these instants,

18
 2𝜋𝑥
The displacement 𝑦 = ±2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [from eq. 3]
𝜆
2𝜋𝑥
The amplitude 𝐴 = 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [from (5); independent of time]
𝜆
𝑑𝑦
The velocity = 0 [from (6)]
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑦 8𝜋2 𝑎𝑣 2 2𝜋𝑥
The acceleration 𝑑𝑡 2 = ± 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [from (7)]
𝜆2 𝜆
𝑑𝑦 4𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑥
The strain =± 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [from (8)]
𝑑𝑥 𝜆 𝜆

These equations show that at these instants, the displacement, acceleration, and strain are all
maximum, but the velocity is zero.
t
Now, cos 2 = 1 [𝑣⁄𝜆 = 𝑛 = 1⁄𝑇]
T
t
Or, 2 = 0,  ,2 ,3 etc. = k
T
Where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.
kT
Or, t =
2
T 2T 3T
Hence the extreme positions of the string occur at the following times when t = 0, , , ,
2 2 2
etc. As shown in the above figure, the time interval between extreme positions on both sides of
the mean position is also T/2.
At these instants, although the maximum displacement of the particles is all different, each
particle is at its extreme position, and the velocity of the particles is zero. The pattern is,
therefore, stationary at that instant. This instant is called the stationary instant.

Consider the instant for which the string is straight, i.e. has zero amplitude, when
2 2𝜋
cos vt = 0 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑡 = ±1
 𝜆

At these instants,
The displacement y = 0 [from eq. 3]
2𝜋𝑥
The amplitude 𝐴 = 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [from (5); independent of time]
𝜆
𝑑𝑦 4𝜋𝑎𝑣 2𝜋𝑥
The velocity =± 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [from (6)]
𝑑𝑡 𝜆 𝜆

𝑑2 𝑦
The acceleration 𝑑𝑡 2 = 0 [from (7)]

19
 𝑑𝑦
The strain =0 [from (8)]
𝑑𝑥

These equations show that at these instants, the displacement, acceleration, and strain are all
zero, but the velocity is maximum.
2
Now, cos vt = 0

2  3 5
Or, vt = , , , etc.
 2 2 2
2 
Or, vt = (2k + 1)
 2
2t 
= (2k + 1)
v 1
Or, [ = f = , where f is the frequency and T the time-period
T 2  T
of the wave]
Where k = 0, 1, 2, ……..

Or, t = (2k + 1) .
T
4
Hence, the times when the string passes through its mean position are given by
T 3T 5T
t= , , , etc.
4 4 4
It will be seen from above figure that the interval between the two mean positions of the string
is half the time period, i.e. T/2. However, in one position, the string is going upwards and in
the other downwards. It will be found that twice in each vibration, the string collapses to its
mean position.

20
21
Figure Time snapshots of two sine waves. The red wave is moving in the −x-direction and the
blue wave is moving in the +x-direction. The resulting wave is shown in black. Consider the
resultant wave at the points x=0 m, 3 m, 6 m, 9 m, 12 m, 15 m, and notice that the resultant
wave always equals zero at these points, no matter what the time is. These points are known as
fixed points (nodes). In between each two nodes is an antinode, a place where the medium
oscillates with an amplitude equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves.

The energy transfer of a stationary wave

When a longitudinal wave propagates through a fluid, the bulk modulus (K) of the fluid is given
by
𝑝
𝐾 = − 𝑑𝑦⁄𝑑𝑥, where p is the excess pressure (volume stress) and dy/dx is the strain.
𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑝 = −𝐾 (1)
𝑑𝑥

In the case of a stationary wave formed by reflection at a free boundary, the strain is given by
𝑑𝑦 4𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2)
𝑑𝑥 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

𝐾
Also, 𝑣 = √ 𝜌

𝐾
or 𝑣 2 = 𝜌

𝑜𝑟 𝐾 = 𝑣 2 𝜌 , where  is the density of the fluid.

𝑑𝑦
Substituting these values of 𝑑𝑥 and K in equ. (1)
4𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
𝑝 = 𝑣 2𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (3)
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
When 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 1, the excess pressure is maximum
𝜆 𝜆
4𝜋𝑎
𝑝 = 𝑝0 = 𝑣 2 𝜌 (4)
𝜆

From equ. (3) and (4)

2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
𝑝 = 𝑝0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (5)
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋𝑥
Putting, 𝑝0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 𝑝𝑥 , equation (5) becomes
𝜆
2𝜋𝑣𝑡
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (6)
𝜆

The particle velocity at a point is given by

𝑑𝑦 4𝜋𝑎𝑣 2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
𝑈= = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (7)
𝑑𝑡 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

22
 4𝜋𝑎𝑣 2𝜋𝑥
Putting 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑈𝑥
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋𝑣𝑡
We have 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (8)
𝜆

Now, the energy transferred per unit area in a small interval of time dt is equal to the work
done. Or,
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑝. 𝑈𝑑𝑡 (9)
So, the energy transferred during the whole time period T is given by
𝑇
I = ∫ 𝑝. 𝑈𝑑𝑡
0
𝑇 2𝜋𝑣𝑡 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
= ∫0 𝑝𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑈𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 (10)
𝜆 𝜆

Then, the rate of energy transfer or the average energy transferred per second, say
𝑇
∫0 𝑝. 𝑈𝑑𝑡
I𝑎𝑣 =
𝑇
𝑝𝑥 𝑈𝑥 𝑇 2𝜋𝑣𝑡 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 𝜆 𝜆
𝑝𝑥 𝑈𝑥 𝑇 2𝜋𝑣𝑡 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 𝜆 𝜆
𝑝𝑥 𝑈𝑥 𝑇 2𝜋𝑣𝑡 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
= ∫ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡
2𝑇 0 𝜆 𝜆
𝑝𝑥 𝑈𝑥 𝑇 4𝜋𝑣𝑡
= ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 (11)
2𝑇 𝜆
𝑇 4𝜋𝑣𝑡
But∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝜆

So, the rate of energy transfer = 0.

Thus, there is no transfer of energy across any section of the medium in the case of a stationary
or standing wave.
Standing Waves on a String
Consider a string of L=2.00m attached to an adjustable-frequency string vibrator as shown in
Figure 1. The waves produced by the vibrator travel down the string and are reflected by the
fixed boundary condition at the pulley. The string, which has a linear mass density of
μ=0.006kg/m, is passed over a frictionless pulley of a negligible mass, and the tension is
provided by a 2.00-kg hanging mass. (a) What is the velocity of the waves on the string? (b)
Draw a sketch of the first three normal modes of the standing waves that can be produced on

23
the string and label each with the wavelength. (c) List the frequencies that the string vibrator
must be tuned to in order to produce the first three normal modes of the standing waves.

Figure 1 A string attached to an adjustable-frequency string vibrator.

Strategy
𝐹
1. The velocity of the wave can be found using 𝑣 = −√ 𝜇𝑇 . The tension is provided by

the weight of the hanging mass.

2. The standing waves will depend on the boundary conditions. There must be a node at
each end. The first mode will be one-half of a wave. The second can be found by adding
a half wavelength. That is the shortest length that will result in a node at the boundaries.
For example, adding one-quarter of a wavelength will result in an antinode at the
boundary and is not a mode that would satisfy the boundary conditions. This is shown
in Figure 1.
3. Since the wave speed velocity is the wavelength times the frequency, the frequency is
wave speed divided by the wavelength.

Figure 16.31 (a) The figure represents the second mode of the string that satisfies the
boundary conditions of a node at each end of the string. (b)This figure could not
possibly be a normal mode on the string because it does not satisfy the boundary
conditions. There is a node on one end, but an antinode on the other.

24
Solution

a. Begin with the velocity of a wave on a string. The tension is equal to the weight of the
hanging mass. The linear mass density and mass of the hanging mass are given:

𝑚
𝐹𝑇 𝑚𝑔 2 𝑘𝑔 (9.8 )
𝑠
𝑣 = −√ 𝜇 = √ =√ 𝑘𝑔 = 57.15 m/s
𝜇 0.006
𝑚

b. The first normal mode that has a node on each end is a half wavelength. The next two
modes are found by adding a half of a wavelength.

Significance

The three standing modes in this example were produced by maintaining the tension in the
string and adjusting the driving frequency. Keeping the tension in the string constant results in
a constant velocity. The same modes could have been produced by keeping the frequency
constant and adjusting the speed of the wave in the string (by changing the hanging mass.)

Comparison between progressive and stationary waves

Progressive wave Stationary wave (standing)

25
The disturbance travels onwards, i.e. it is The disturbance is confined, i.e. it is fixed
handed on from one particle to the next. All and no particle transfers its vibration to the
the characteristics of a vibrating particle at neighboring particles. It means that the
any instant are transferred to the next particle vibration characteristics of each particle are
in the next instant. peculiar to itself and are not transferred to the
next particle at any time.

Every particle has a constant amplitude The amplitude is not the same for all
which is the same for all particles. However, particles. It is maximum for an antinode and
all particles do not achieve this amplitude decrease gradually from antinode to node
simultaneously but one after another. In according to cosine law. However, all
other words, there is a phase difference particles reach their maximum displacement
between various particles. simultaneously. Particles between two
consecutive nodes are in the same phase but
out of phase by 1800 from those lying in the
preceding and succeeding segments.

No particle is at rest permanently but only Particles at nodes at permanently at rest. All
momentarily rest is achieved by different other particles come to rest only
momentarily, but simultaneously, when they
particles at different points.
are at extreme positions of their maximum
displacement. This condition is repeated after
every half period.

The velocity of nodes is zero but it increases

The maximum velocity of all the particles is
as we go to the antinodes where it is
the same and they achieve this value when
maximum. Different particles have different
passing through the mean position.
values of their maximum velocities but all
achieve it when passing through their mean
position.

The conditions of compression and

rarefaction (or crests and troughs) do not

26
 It is no reason of the medium the conditions move from one region to the other. In any
of compression and rarefaction are constant, region, compressions and rarefactions appear
rather these conditions advance forward as and disappear only to be succeeded by
each region is affected in turn. opposite conditions.

The equations for displacement, velocity and

strain equations are given by

The displacement, velocity and strain 2 2

y = 2a sin .x. cos vt
 
equations are given by
dy 4va 2 2vt
2 =
y = a sin (vt − x ) dt 
cos

x. cos


dy 4a 2x 2vt
dy 2va 2 =−
= cos (vt − x ) dx 
sin

sin

dt  
2 2
dy
=− a cos (vt − x )
dx   However, in this case, a particle achieves its
maximum strain at the same time but

By comparing the different equations, it is maximum velocity is achieved a quarter

seen that the velocity and strain curves agree period i.e. T/4 second later.
i.e. a particle achieves its maximum
displacement one quarter time period later. There is no transfer of energy through the
medium.

There is a transmission of energy across

every plane of the medium.

Problems:

27
EXAMPLE 11.4
A man saw a toy duck on a wave in an ocean. He noticed that the duck moved up and down 15
times per minute. He roughly measured the wavelength of the ocean wave as 1.2 m. Calculate
the time taken by the toy duck for going one time up and down and also the velocity of the
ocean wave.

Solution
Given that the number of times the toy duck moves up and down is 15 times per minute. This
information gives us frequency (the number of times the toy duck moves up and down)

But one minute is 60 second, therefore, expressing time in terms of second

The time taken by the toy duck for going one time up and down is time period which is inverse
of frequency

28
The velocity of ocean wave is v
v = λf = 1.2 ×0.25 = 0.3 m s-1.

EXAMPLE 11.5
Consider a string whose one end is attached to a wall. Then compute the following in both
situations given in figure (assume waves crosses the distance in one second)

(a) Wavelength,
(b) Frequency and
(c) Velocity

Solution

This means that the speed of the wave along a string is a constant. The higher the frequency,
the shorter the wavelength, and vice versa, and their product is velocity which remains the
same.

EXAMPLE 11.7
Calculate the speed of sound in a steel rod whose Young’s modulus Y = 2 × 1011 N m-2 and ρ =
7800 kg m-3.

Solution

29
Therefore, longitudinal waves travel faster in a solid than in a liquid or a gas. Now you may
understand why a shepherd checks before crossing a railway tracks by keeping his ears on the
rails to safeguard his cattle.

EXAMPLE 11.8
An increase in pressure of 100 kPa causes a certain volume of water to decrease by 0.005% of
its original volume.
(a) Calculate the bulk modulus of water?.
(b) Compute the speed of sound (compressional waves) in water?.

Solution
(a) Bulk modulus

(b) Speed of sound in water is

30
EXAMPLE 11.6

Calculate the velocity of the travelling pulse as shown in the figure below. The linear mass
density of pulse is 0.25 kg m-1. Further, compute the time taken by the travelling pulse to cover
a distance of 30 cm on the string.

31
Solution

The tension in the string is T = m g = 1.2 × 9.8 = 11.76 N

The mass per unit length is μ = 0.25 kg m-1. Therefore, velocity of the wave pulse is

The time taken by the pulse to cover the distance of 30 cm is

Where ms = milli second.

32