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LIFE PROCESSES
All living organisms have certain common characteristics, such as breathing,
growing, requiring nutrition, producing offspring, responding to stimuli, etc.,
that distinguish them from non-living things. There are certain vital
processes that maintain homeostasis and proper functioning of the body,
they are called life processes. These processes continue to occur even when
we are sleeping or not performing any action. These processes are essential
for all living organisms, including plants and animals. Life processes are the
basic processes in living organisms which are necessary for maintaining their
life. The basic life processes are –nutrition, respiration, transportation, and
excretion.

-: NUTRITION :-
The process by which an organism takes food and utilizes it, is called
nutrition. Or “Nutrition is the process of taking food by an organism and its
Utilisation by the body to build the body, for growth, to repair the damaged
parts of the body and for energy.”

Need for Nutrition:- Organisms need the energy to perform various activities.
The energy is supplied by the nutrients. Organisms need various raw materials
for growth and repair. These raw materials are provided by nutrients

Nutrients:- Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called

nutrients. Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are the main nutrients and are
called macronutrients. Minerals and vitamins are required in small amounts
and hence area called micronutrients.

Modes of Nutrition
There are two main modes of nutrition. They are autotrophic nutrition and
heterotrophic nutrition.
i) Autotrophic nutrition :- (Auto = self, trophic = food) It is a mode of
nutrition in which organisms prepare their own food. Inorganic molecules like
CO2 and H2O are converted into organic molecules like carbohydrates in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. e.g. Green plants and some bacteria
(green sulfur bacteria, purple sulfur bacteria, purple non-sulfur bacteria).
Autotrophs are further categorized. as :
o Photoautotroph : Those which utilize sunlight for preparing their food
o Chemoautotroph : Those which utilize chemical energy for preparing
their food.
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ii) Heterotrophic nutrition :- (Hetero = different ; trophic = food) It is a
mode of nutrition in which organisms derive their food fro some other
animals or plants.They cannot prepare their own food. Eg - all animals fungi
and some bacteria (Agrobacterium, Xanthomonas, Pseudomonas, Salmonella,
Escherichia, Rhizobium etc). Heterotrophs are further categorized depending
on the nature of food they consume :
o Herbivores : Animals which eat only plants, e.g. Cow, goat etc.
o Carnivores : They feed on flesh of other animals, e.g. Lion, vulture etc.
o Omnivores : They feed on plants and animals both e.g. Dog, human etc.
o Detritivores : Feed on detritus or dead organic remains, e.g. Earthworm
etc.
o Sanguivorous : Feed on blood e.g. Leech, female mosquito etc.
o Frugivorous : Feed on fruits, e.g. Parrot etc.
o Insectivores : Feed on insects, e.g. Bats etc.

On the Basis of Mode of Feeding Organisms are Categorised As :

(1) Holozoic : Which organisms take food directly and then digests and
absorbs it, called holozoic e.g., Amoeba, paramaecium, birds, fishes, human
etc.
(2) Saprotrophic : they absorb organic matter from dead and decaying
organisms with the help of their enzymes. e.g., Bacteria, fungi (mushroom,
bread mould, yeast) etc.
(3) Parasitic : which organisms get their food from living organisms (host)
without killing them called parasite. This type of nutrition known as parasitic
nutrition Eg :- cuscuta, lice, leeches, round worm, tape worm etc.

Nutrition in Plants:
Green plants prepare their own food. They make food in the presence of
sunlight. Sunlight provides energy’, carbon dioxide and water are the raw
materials and chloroplast is the site where food is made.

Photosynthesis :- Photosynthesis is the process by which plants prepare

food by using carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll. The food prepared is carbohydrate which is stored in the form of
starch. Oxygen is released in this process.

Raw Materials for Photosynthesis:

o Sunlight
o Chlorophyll: Sunlight absorbed by chloroplast
o CO2: Enters through stomata, and oxygen (O2) is released as a byproduct
through stomata on the leaf.
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o Water: Water + dissolved minerals like nitrogen, phosphorous etc., are
taken up by the roots from the soil.

How do raw materials for photosynthesis become available to the plant?

Water comes from the soil, through the xylem tissue in roots and stems.
Carbon dioxide comes in the leaves through stomata.

Site of Photosynthesis: Chloroplast in the leaf. Chloroplast contains

chlorophyll (green pigment)

Main Events of Photosynthesis:

• Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
• Conversion of light energy into
chemical energy + splitting
(breaking) of water into
hydrogen and oxygen.
• Reduction of CO2 to
carbohydrates.
• Sunlight activates chlorophyll,
which leads to splitting of the
water molecule.
• The hydrogen, released by the
splitting of a water molecule
is utilized for the reduction of
carbon dioxide to produce
carbohydrates.
• Oxygen is the by-product of
photosynthesis.
• Carbohydrate is subsequently
converted into starch and is
stored in leaves and other
storage parts.
• The splitting of water
molecules is a part of the light
reaction.

Stomata :- Stomata are tiny pores present in the leaves through which
exchange of gases takes place. Each stoma has a pair of guard cells which
controls the opening and closing of the stomatal pore. When water enters
the guard cells, it swells and the pore opens and when the guard cells lose
water, it shrinks and the pore closes.

Functions of stomata
• Exchange of gases, O2 and CO2.
• Loses a large amount of water (water vapour) during transpiration.
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Opening and closing of stomatal pores:

o The opening and closing of stomatal pores are controlled by the
turgidity of guard cells.
o When guard cells uptake water from surrounding cells, they swell to
become a turgid body, which enlarges the pore in between (Stomatal
Opening).
o While, when water is released, they become flaccid shrinking to close
the pore (Stomatal Closing).

Significance of Photosynthesis:
o Photosynthesis is the main way through which solar energy is made
available for different living beings.
o Green plants are the main producers of food in the ecosystem. All other
organisms directly or indirectly depend on green plants for food.
o The process of photosynthesis also helps in maintaining the balance of
carbon dioxide and oxygen in the air.

Nutrition in Animals :-
o Animals have highly evolved digestive mechanism that includes two
basic components :
1. Alimentary canal : Long, hollow, tubular structure consisting of
various organs for digestion.
2. Digestive glands : They secrete enzymes/hormones which help in
digestion.

Holozoic Nutrition consist of following steps :

1) Ingestion : The process of intake of food.

2) Digestion : It is the breakdown of large and complex molecules into
simpler, smaller and soluble forms.
3) Absorption : Taking up of the digested food through intestinal wall
to blood.
4) Assimilation : In this process absorbed food in taken by body cells.
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5) Egestion : The process by which undigested matter is expelled out.

o Digestive system is regulated

by various hormones secreted
by some endocrine glands.
o Coiled and well developed
alimentary canal was
developed in Annelida till
mammals.

Nutrition in amoeba :-
Amoeba is a unicellular animal
living in water. It takes in food by
forming finger like projections
called pseudopodia and forms a food
vacuole. Inside the food vacuole the
food is digested and absorbed. The
undigested food is then sent out
through the surface of the cell.

Nutrition in Human beings

Nutrition in human beings takes
place in the digestive system. It
Consists of the alimentary canal
and digestive glands which produce
enzymes Which breaks down food
into smaller molecules.

Structure of the Human Digestive System

The human digestive system comprises of the alimentary canal and
associated digestive glands.

Alimentary Canal: It comprises of mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small

intestine and large intestine.

Digestive Glands: Main digestive glands are

o Salivary gland
o Gastric Glands
o Liver
o Pancreas

1.Mouth or Buccal Cavity:-

o The mouth has teeth and tongue. Salivary glands are also present in the
mouth.
o The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive the sense of taste.
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o The tongue helps in turning over the food so that saliva can be properly
mixed in it.
o Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller particles so that,
swallowing of food becomes easier.
o There are four types of teeth in human beings. The incisor teeth are
used for cutting the food.
o Jaws present in buccal cavity are provided with four different types of
teeth :
1. Incisors : For cutting
2. Canines : For tearing
3. Premolars : For grinding
4. Molars : For grinding
Dental formula of humans :
Milk teeth→ These are temporary, arise at 6 - 11 month age, 20 in
number.

Permanent teeth→ arise at 6 – 12 years, 32 in number.

Salivary glands secrete saliva:- Saliva makes the food slippery which makes it
easy to swallow the food. Saliva
also contains the enzyme
salivary amylase or ptyalin.
Salivary amylase digests starch
and converts it into sucrose,
(maltose).

2.Oesophagus: Taking food

from mouth to stomach by
Peristaltic movement.
Peristaltic movement: Rhythmic
contraction of muscles of the
lining of the alimentary canal to
push the food forward.

3.Stomach:- Stomach is a bag-

like organ. Highly muscular walls
of the stomach help in churning
the food.
o The walls of the stomach
secrete hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid kills the
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germs which may be present in food.
o Moreover, it makes the medium inside the stomach as acidic. The acidic
medium is necessary for gastric enzymes to work.
o The enzyme pepsin,
secreted in the stomach,
does partial digestion of
protein.
o The mucus, secreted by
the walls of the stomach
saves the inner lining of
the stomach from
getting damaged from
hydrochloric acid.

4.Small Intestine: It is a
highly coiled tube-like
structure. The small intestine
is longer than the large
intestine but its lumen is
smaller than that of the large
intestine. The small intestine
is divided into three parts, like
duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
o Liver: Liver is the largest
organ in the human body.
The liver manufactures
bile, which gets stored in
the gall bladder. From
the gall bladder, bile is released as and when required.
o Pancreas: Pancreas is situated below the stomach. It secretes pancreatic
juice which contains many digestive enzymes.

Bile and pancreatic juice go to the duodenum through a hepatopancreatic

duct. Bile breaks down fat into smaller particles. This process is called
emulsification of fat. After that, the enzyme lipase digests fat into fatty
acids and glycerol. Trypsin and chymotrypsin are enzymes which digest
protein into amino acids. Complex carbohydrates are digested into glucose.
The major part of digestion takes place in the duodenum.

No digestion takes place in the jejunum: The inner wall in the ileum is
projected into numerous finger-like structures, called villi. Villi increase the
surface area inside the ileum so that optimum absorption can take place.
Moreover, villi also reduce the lumen of the ileum so that food can stay for a
longer duration in it, for optimum absorption. Digested food is absorbed by
villi.
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5.Large Intestine:
• Large intestine is smaller than the small intestine.
• Undigested food goes into the large intestine.
• Some water and salt are absorbed by the walls of the large intestine.
After that, the undigested food goes to the rectum, from where it is
expelled out through the anus.
• Large Intestine absorb excess of water. The rest of the material is
removed from the body via the anus. (Egestion).

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Written by – Siraj Ali

▪ B.Sc. (Biological Science)
▪ M.Sc. (Botany)
From
(University of Lucknow)
Main Campus