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CIE IGCSE Biology Your notes

2.1 Cell Structure & Size of Specimens

Contents
2.1.1 Cell Structure
2.1.2 Organisation of Cells
2.1.3 Magnification Formula
2.1.4 Converting Between Units: Extended

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2.1.1 Cell Structure

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Animal & plant cells
Animal cell structure
The main features of animal cells:
They contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
Cells do not have cellulose cell walls
Their cells do not contain chloroplasts (so they are unable to carry out photosynthesis)
They contain carbohydrates stored as glycogen
Animal cell diagram

A typical animal cell

Plant cell structure
The main features of plant cells:
They contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
Cells have cell walls made out of cellulose
They contain chloroplasts (so they can carry out photosynthesis)
Carbohydrates are stored as starch or sucrose

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Plant cell diagram

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A typical plant cell

Plant and animal cell structure and function

Structure Function

Nucleus Contains the DNA (genetic material)

which controls the activities of the cell
A gel like substance composed of water
and dissolved solutes
Supports the internal structures of the
Cytoplasm
cell
Site of many chemical reactions
(including anaerobic respiration)
Holds the cell together separating the
inside of the cell from the outside
Cell membrane
Controls which substances enter or leave
the cell

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Found in the cytoplasm

Ribosomes
The site of protein synthesis
Your notes
Mitochondria The site of aerobic respiration

Cell structure diagram

An animal and plant cell as seen under a light microscope

Plant cell structure and function

Structure Function

Made of cellulose (a polymer of glucose)

Cell wall Gives the cell extra support, defining its
shape

Contains the green chlorophyll pigment

Chloroplast that absorbs light energy for
photosynthesis

Contains cell sap: a solution of sugar and

salt
Permanent vacuole
Used for storage of certain materials
Helps to support the shape of the cell

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Bacteria cells
Bacteria cell structure Your notes
Bacteria, which have a wide variety of shapes and sizes, all share the following biological
characteristics:
They are microscopic single-celled organisms
Possess a cell wall (made of peptidoglycan, not cellulose), cell membrane, cytoplasm and
ribosomes
Lack a nucleus but contain a circular chromosome of DNA that floats in the cytoplasm
Plasmids are sometimes present - these are small rings of DNA (also floating in the cytoplasm)
that contain extra genes to those found in the chromosomal DNA
They lack mitochondria, chloroplasts and other membrane-bound organelles found in animal
and plant cells
Some bacteria also have a flagellum (singular) or several flagella (plural). These are long, thin, whip-
like tails attached to bacteria that allow them to move
Examples of bacteria include:
Lactobacillus (a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of yoghurt from milk)
Pneumococcus (a spherical bacterium that acts as the pathogen causing pneumonia)
Bacteria cell diagram

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A typical bacterial cell

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Identifying cell structures & function

Within the cytoplasm, the following organelles are visible in almost all cells except prokaryotes when Your notes
looking at higher magnification (ie using an electron microscope):
Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are organelles found throughout the cytoplasm
Ribosomes are tiny structures that can be free within the cytoplasm or attached to a system of
membranes within the cell known as Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes looks rough under the microscope; this gives rise
to its name of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (often shortened to R.E.R.)
Vesicles can also be seen using a higher magnification - these are small circular structures found
moving throughout the cytoplasm
Identifying cell structures under a microscope

Structures in an animal cell visible under a light microscope and an electron microscope

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Structures in a plant cell visible under a light microscope and an electron microscope

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2.1.2 Organisation of Cells

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Producing New Cells
The cells in your body need to be able to divide to help your body grow and repair itself
Cells grow and divide over and over again
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells

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Specialised Cells
Specialised cells in animals Your notes
Specialised cells are those which have developed certain characteristics in order to perform
particular functions. These differences are controlled by genes in the nucleus
Cells specialise by undergoing differentiation: this is a process by which cells develop the structure
and characteristics needed to be able to carry out their functions
Specialised Cells in Animals Table

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Your notes

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Your notes
Diagrams of specialised cells in animals:

Ciliated cell

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Nerve cell

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Red blood cells

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Sperm cell

Egg cell
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Examples of specialised cells in plants:

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Diagrams of specialised cells in plants:

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Root hair cell

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Xylem structure

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Palisade mesophyll cell

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Levels of Organisation in an Organism

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Levels of organisation

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Your notes

Your syllabus states that you should be able to identify the different levels of organisation in drawings,
diagrams and images of familiar material
An example of this is shown in the exam question below:

Typical levels of organisation question

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Exam Tip
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Most incorrect answers here come from not being able to identify a tissue, so it’s worth making sure
you understand and remember that tissues are always made up of only one type of cell.

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2.1.3 Magnification Formula

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Magnification Formula
Calculating magnification and specimen size using millimetres as units
Magnification is calculated using the following equation:
Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size
A better way to remember the equation is using an equation triangle:

Magnification equation
Rearranging the equation to find things other than the magnification becomes easy when you
remember the triangle - whatever you are trying to find, place your finger over it and whatever is left is
what you do, so:
Magnification = image size / actual size
Actual size = image size / magnification
Image size = magnification x actual size
Remember magnification does not have any units and is just written as ‘x 10’ or ‘x 5000’

Worked example
An image of an animal cell is 30 mm in size and it has been magnified by a factor of x 3000. What
is the actual size of the cell?

To find the actual size of the cell:

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Your notes

Worked example using the magnification equation

Exam Tip
This skill most frequently comes up in paper 5 and 6 (although it also comes up in the multiple choice
and occasionally the theory paper) and you will definitely have to calculate either magnification,
drawing size or actual size in a least one paper. To ensure you do not lose marks:
1. Always look at the units that have been given in the question - if you are asked to measure
something, most often you will be expected to measure it in millimetres NOT in centimetres -
double check the question to see!
2. Learn the equation triangle for magnification and write it on the page straight away
3. Don’t forget that magnification has NO UNITS - students often lose a mark because they put one
in

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2.1.4 Converting Between Units: Extended

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Converting Between Units: Extended
Using millimetres and micrometres as units
The table below shows how millimetres are related to two other measures of length
What this basically means is that 1mm = 1000µm and 1cm = 10,000µm
This usually comes up in questions where you have two different units and you need to ensure that you
convert them both into the same unit before proceeding with the calculation
For example:

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Example extended magnification question

Remember 1mm = 1000µm
2000 / 1000 = 2 so the actual thickness of the leaf is 2mm and the drawing thickness is 50mm

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Magnification = image size / actual size = 50 / 2 = 25

So the magnification is x 25 (NO UNITS)
Your notes
Exam Tip
If you are given a question with two different units in it, make sure you convert them to the same unit
before doing your calculation.If you don’t, there is a good chance that your answer will be the same as
one of the incorrect options in a multiple choice question so you may think you got it right when, in fact,
you haven’t!The following diagram may help with unit conversion between mm and µm:

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