Chapter: 4 Voltage Regulator

Voltage Regulation
An exemplary power supply always has constant voltages on output terminals, irrespective of the
values of current received. However, output voltages, in a practical power supply change with the
value of its load current. Specifications of a power supply also contain its full load current ratings
(IFL), which is the maximum current received through the supply. When full load current is being
achieved, at that point, terminal voltages of the power supply are called full load voltages (V FL). No-
load voltages (VNL) when no current is being received from the supply (zero current), terminal
voltages of the power supply at that time are called no-load voltages. Measurement of efficiency of
a power supply, through which it could be ascertained, how better a power supply is, enables a
power supply to keep it on a constant voltage between no load and full load conditions. It’s percent
voltage is called regulation.

Line Regulation
When there is a change in the input voltage that is ac voltage of the power source the circuitry
used known as a regulator which retains the constant value of voltage at the output. Line regulation
is known as a percentage variation in the output voltage according to resultant variation in the input
voltage. Line regulation also defined in percentage voltage. For instance, the line regulation of 0.05
percent volts indicates that the output voltage varies 0.05% when there is input voltage has
increment or decrement single volt. Line regulation can be found with the use of a given formula.

𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = (𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕/𝑽𝒊𝒏)𝟏𝟎𝟎%/𝑽𝒊𝒏

Figure 4.1 Line regulation

Load Regulation
The quantity of current passing in the load varies according to the change in load resistance the
voltage regulator should retain an almost constant output voltage about the load as shown in below
figure. Load regulation can also be defined as the percentage variation in the output voltage in the
variation in the load current. The other way to define the load regulation is percentage variation in
the output voltage from no-load state to full load state. In an alternative way the load regulation can
be defined as percentage variation in the output voltage for every mA alteration in the load current.
For instance, the load regulation of 0.01 percent millimeter indicates that the output voltage varies
by 0.01 % when the load current rises or decreases 1 mA.

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = (𝑽𝑵𝑳 − 𝑽𝑭𝒍)/𝑽𝑭𝑳 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%

Figure 4.2 Load regulation

Voltage Regulators
To control voltage levels, a voltage regulator is used. It is also called a closed-loop control system
because it provides feedback via examination of output voltages. It compensates for every
tendency of output voltages and increases or decreases supply voltage automatically according to
requirement. Thus, the objective of a regulator is to eliminate any changes in output voltage. There
are two types of voltage regulators.

1. Series Voltage Regulator

2. Shunt Voltage Regulator

Comparison of Series & Shunt Voltage Regulator

Sr.
Series Voltage Regulator Shunt Voltage Regulator
No.
The control element is in parallel with The control element is in series with
1
the load. the load.
Only small current passes through the The entire load current IL always
2 control element which is required to be passes through the control element.
diverted to keep output constant.
Any change in output voltage is Any change in output voltage is
3 compensated by changing the current compensated by adjusting the voltage
Ish through the control element as pert across the control element as per the
 he control signal. control signal.
The control element is low current, The control element is high current,
4
high voltage rating component. low voltage rating component.
5 The regulation is poor. The regulation is good.
Efficiency depends on the load current. Efficiency depends on the output
6
voltage.
7 Preferred for fixed voltage applications Preferred for fixed as well as variable
Simple to design. Complicated to design as compared to
8
shunt regulators
Examples: Zener Shunt regulators, Examples: Series feedback type
9 transistorized shunt regulator etc., regulator, series regulator with pre-
regulator and feedback limiting etc.,

Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

When the zener diode is operated in the breakdown or zener region, the voltage across it is
substantially constant for a large change of current through it. This characteristic permits it to be
used as a voltage regulator. Fig. 4.3 shows the circuit of a zener diode regulator. As long as input
voltage Vin is greater than zener voltage VZ, the zener operates in the breakdown region and
maintains constant voltage across the load. The series limiting resistance RS limits the input
current.

Figure 4.3 circuit of zener diode regulator

Series Voltage Regulator

A regulator, the control element (normally a transistor) which is mounted within a series of input
voltage and output voltage, is known as a series voltage regulator.

In figure 4.2, a functional block diagram of a series type regulator has been shown. A functional
diagram works as a useful model so that the principles of a series regulator model could easily be
understood. Output, senses variations in a simple circuit, output voltage, and error detector
compares simple voltage with a reference voltage, and thus provides signals to control element for
maintaining a constant output voltage. Along with a filter capacitor, unregulated DC input supplied
through a rectifier (shown as Vin in the diagram), is passed on to the control element mounted in
the regulator, through the output of which, regulated output voltages (V 0) are produced. Control
Element is a device, by means of which constant output voltages are acquired by adjusting its
operating state according to needs. As a control element is being fixed in series between (V in) and
(V0), therefore, such type of regulator is also called series type voltage regulator. A sampling circuit
produces feedback proportionate to the output voltage (V 0). These feedbacks are received by the
comparator circuit in the form of a signal, which through mutual comparison of the reference signal
and feedback signal provides its output to the control element in the shape of the control signal.
This control signal adjusts the operating state of a control element.

Figure 4.4 Block diagram of series voltage regulator

For example, if V0 reduces due to an increase in load, the comparator produces such an output,
due to which control element increases (V0). In other words, Vo increases automatically until the
comparator circuit, sensing fresh variations between the feedback signal and reference voltage,
starts providing a new control signal to the control element. Similarly, the comparator circuit passes
such a control signal to the control element as a result of an increase in V 0, as a result of which
V0 decreases. For further clarification, a block diagram of a series voltage regulator has been
shown in figure 4.3.

Shunt Voltage Regulator

A regulator, the control element of which is parallel to the load, is known as a shunt regulator.
Functional block diagram of a shunt regulator is shown in figure 4.4. Components in the block
diagram perform exactly the same functions which components in a series regulator use to
perform. However, it has to be remembered that the control element in a shunt voltage regulator is
parallel to the load, which it is called a shunt regulator. The control element, in case of changes in
load current (IL) maintains a constant load voltage on load, by passing a low or high shunt current
(I SB) from within it.

Figure 4.5 Shunt voltage regulator block diagram

If the control element is considered a variable resistance as per the diagram, the process of the
control element becomes easy to understand. For example, in case of a decrease in load voltage,
the resistance of the control element increases automatically, thus small current flows towards the
control element, and load voltages increase. Inversely, if load voltages are increased, the
resistance of the control element gets low, thus load voltage decrease due to the passing of more
current through the control element.

In other words, source resistance (Rs) on the input or unregulated side of the diagram; assumes
the shape of a voltage divider, due to parallel mounting of the control element and (R L). Thus, when
the resistance of a control element increases, the resistance of the parallel combination increases,
and load voltage also increase as a consequence of voltage divider action.

Integrated circuit voltage regulators

Integrated circuit voltage regulators are available as series regulators or as switching regulators.
The popular three-terminal regulators are often used on separate pc boards within a system
because they are inexpensive and avoid problems associated with large power distribution
systems (such as noise pickup).

An IC based voltage regulator can be classified in different ways. A common type of classification
is 3 terminal voltage regulator and 5 or multi terminal voltage regulator. There is a third set of
classification as,

1. Fixed positive voltage regulator

2. Fixed negative voltage regulator
3. Adjustable voltage regulator
4. Dual-tracking voltage regulator
Fixed Positive Voltage Regulator 78xx Family

This IC regulator provides a fixed positive output voltage. Although many types of IC regulators
are available, the 7800 series of IC regulators are the most popular. The last two digits in the part
number indicate the dc output voltage. For example, the 7812 is a + 12V regulator whereas the
7805 is a + 5V regulator. These IC’s include thermal shutdown protection and internal current
limiting. The 78XX series are primarily used for fixed output voltages, but with additional
components, they can be set up for variable voltages or currents. The 78xx Voltage regulators are
sometime referred to as (L78xx, LM78xx, or MC78xx). When required to supply a specific voltage
to your circuit from a higher voltage input 78xx family of voltage regulators are champion still
commonly used today in a considerable no of electronic devices due to their reliability robustness
and simplicity. The 78xx series of voltage regulators are used in regulated power supplies. They
are Available in different models can be referred to as 78xx series, 7800 series and it is sometimes
prefixed with LM or the MC depending on the manufacturer.
 Figure 4.6 78XX series three-terminal fixed positive voltage regulators.

• Pin 1: it is left hand pin connected to +VE or red terminal on a suitable battery acting as supply
voltage input or VIN.
• Pin 2: It is the centre pin and the heat sink tab is connected to ground both on your supply
voltage -VE or black terminal on the battery and it is also to the ground of your target circuit
Shown as V or GND on your schematic. The centre pin may sometimes be cropped with the
heat sink tab taking over its function.
• Pin 3: it is the output voltage that your target circuit will use as V+.

Advantages of 78xx:
• It is very easy to use just select the required 7800 series regulator and place it in circuit for it to
work.
• It is very few additional electronic components are required using the basic circuit only
capacitors are required for the input and output.
• It is Low cost these linear voltage regulators can be obtained for a very low cost.

Disadvantages of 78xx:
• 7800 series regulators are a voltage linear regulator and therefore they offer a low efficiency
compared to switch mode power supplies.
• 7800 series regulators chip requires a voltage drop cross it to work typically this voltage is
around 2.5V minimum and more is better.
• 7800 series regulators are old technology and more modern integrated circuits would normally
be used these days

Fixed Positive Voltage Regulator LM340 Series

 Figure 4.7 General Block Diagram of LM340 Series
The voltage regulator using LM340 IC is the most used voltage regulator IC. As shown in the block
diagram above, the built-in reference voltage Vref drives the non-inverting input of the operational
amplifier. There are many stages of voltage gain for the op-amp used here. This high gain helps
the op -amp to make the error voltage between the inverting and non-inverting terminals to be
almost zero. Thus, the inverting input terminal value will also be the same as the non-inverting
terminal, Vref. Thus, the current flowing through the potential divider can be written as I = Vref/R2
The resistor R2 shown in the figure is not an external component connected to the IC, but an
internal resistor that is built inside the IC during manufacture. Due to the conditions above, the
same current flows through R1. Thus the output voltage can be written as Vout = Vref/R2 (R1 +
R2) this shows that the output of the regulator can be controlled by putting desired values for R1
and R2. The IC has a series pass transistor that can handle more than 1.5 A of load current
provided that enough heat sinking is provided along with it. Like other IC’s, this IC also has thermal
shutdown and current limiting options. Thermal shutdown is a feature that will turn off the IC as
soon as the internal temperature of the IC rises above its preset value. This rise in temperature
may mostly be due to excessive external voltage, ambient temperature, or even heat sinking. The
preset cut-off temperature value for LM340 IC is 175° C. Because of thermal shutdown and current
limiting, devices in the LM 340 series are almost indestructible.

Fixed Negative Voltage Regulators 79xx Family

The Negative voltage regulators are equally important as positive voltage regulators. The 79xx
series of voltage regulators are the usually used negative voltage regulators. They are three
terminal regulators and is available with fixed output voltages of -5V, -12V and -15V. The 79XX
series is the negative output counterpart to the 78XX series, however the pin assignments are
different on this series. Other specifications are basically the same
 Figure 4.8 79XX series three-terminal fixed negative voltage regulators.

Linear Adjustable Positive Voltage Regulators

The LM317 is an example of a three-terminal positive regulator with an adjustable or variable
output capacity as shown in figure 4.7. There is a fixed reference voltage of +1.25 V between the
output and adjustment terminals. There is no ground pin. The basic arrangement is can be seen in
the below figure.

The output voltage is calculated by:

Figure 4.9 LM317 three-terminal adjustable positive voltage regulator.

The capacitor is used for decoupling and has not any effect on the dc operation. Note that there is
an input-output and variable terminal. The exterior fixed-resistance and outer variable resistance
offer the output voltage variance or adjustment. The value of V Out can be changed from 1.2 volts to
37 volts according to the value of resistance. The LM317 can offer large then the 1.5 amperes
output current to the output. LM317 is functioning like a floating regulator since the adjustment
terminal is not linked with the ground but floats the value of voltage about the resistance R2. It
permits the output voltage to be larger than the fixed voltage regulator.
Linear Adjustable Negative Voltage Regulators

The LM337 is a negative output opposite part of LM317 and the finest category of this category of
the integrated circuit. Similar to the LM317 LM337 needs 2 exterior resistances for output voltage
regulation can be seen in the below figure. The value of output voltage can be varied from -1.2
volts to -37 volts according to the value of resistance. The operation of the capacitor in this circuitry
is to do decoupling and has no effect at dc operation.

Figure 4.10 LM337 three-terminal adjustable negative voltage regulator.

Linear Adjustable General Purpose Voltage Regulator – IC 723:

The 723 voltage regulator is commonly used for series voltage regulator applications. It can be
used as both positive and negative voltage regulator. It has an ability to provide up to 150 mA of
current to the load, but this can be increased more than 10A by using power transistors. It also
comes with comparatively low standby current drain, and provision is made for either linear or fold-
back current limiting. LM723 IC can also be used as a temperature controller, current regulator or
shunt regulator and it is available in both Dual-In-Line and Metal Can packages. The input voltage
ranges from 9.5 to 40V and it can regulate voltage from 2V to 37V.

Figure 4.11 functional block diagram of IC723.

Features of IC723:
• Unregulated dc supply voltage at the input between 9.5V & 40V
• Adjustable regulated output voltage between 2 to 3V.
• Maximum load current of 150 mA (ILmax = 150mA).
• With the additional transistor used, ILmax up to 10A is obtainable.
• Positive or Negative supply operation
• Built in short circuit protection.
• Very low temperature drift and High ripple rejection.

Regulated Power Supply:

Almost all basic household electronic circuits need an unregulated AC to be converted to constant
DC, in order to operate the electronic device. All devices will have a certain power supply limit and
the electronic circuits inside these devices must be able to supply a constant DC voltage within this
limit. This DC supply is regulated and limited in terms of voltage and current. But the supply
provided from mains may be fluctuating and could easily break down the electronic equipment, if
not properly limited. This work of converting an unregulated alternating current (AC) or voltage to a
limited Direct current (DC) or voltage to make the output constant regardless of the fluctuations in
input, is done by a regulated power supply circuit. The electronics circuit uses semiconductor
components and devices which requires stable dc voltage for their operation. The Batteries, cells
cannot be used because they are costly and inconvenient to use. So it is necessary to convert the
available AC voltage of mains supply into D.C. voltage and can be used for operation of electronic
circuits. In short a dc power supply is an electronic circuit which generates dc voltage using ac as
input. If output of dc power supply remains unaltered under the variation of load current or input ac
then it is called as regulated power supply.

Figure 4.12 Block diagram of regulated power supply.

Why Regulated Power Supply is required?

In an unregulated power supply, that is, under ordinary power supply conditions, the voltage
regulation is not good. Changes in the load current cause the output voltage to change as well.
Again, the variations in the input ac voltage causes the output voltage to change as well.

• Under practical situations, there are a lot of factors, there are a lot of variations in ac line
voltage that are not in our control. This causes the dc output voltage to fluctuate. Most of
the electronic circuits wouldn’t work properly on such output voltage fluctuations. Hence
we need a regulated dc power supply.
 • The internal resistance of ordinary power supply is relatively large (> 30 Ω). This in turn
affect the load current drawn from the supply. These variations in dc voltage may result
in the erratic operation of electronic circuits. Hence we need a regulated dc power
supply.

DC Regulated Power Supply:

A DC Power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of AC mains
fluctuations or load variations is known as regulated dc power supply. It has following components.

A regulated power supply consists of an ordinary power supply and voltage regulating device. Fig.
4.13 shows the block diagram of a regulated power supply. The output of ordinary power supply is
fed to the voltage regulator which produces the final output. The output voltage remains constant
whether the load current changes or there are fluctuations in the input ac voltage.

Figure 4.13 block diagram of DC regulated power supply.

1. Transformer: It converts high ac voltage to low ac voltage.

2. Bridge Rectifier: It converts ac input voltage to dc voltage.
3. Filter Circuit: It reduces ripples which is present in output of rectifier.
4. Regulator Circuit: Eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Transformer
The transformer is a device that transfers the electrical energy from one circuit to another circuit by
changing the voltage level. Here, in this circuit, a step-down transformer is used that is used to step
down the voltage. Generally, it takes the 220V supply as input and provides 12V or 24V or 6V as
the output according to the circuit output requirement. By changing the turn’s ratio of the
transformer, the output voltage can be changed. The transformer is not an essential part of a
regulated power supply circuit, it is only used when voltage steps down is required. If the output
230V DC supply is required, then there is no requirement for a transformer.
Rectifier Circuit
The rectifier is an electrical or electronic circuit made of PN Junction Diodes. The main function of
the rectifier circuit is to convert the AC supply into a DC supply. It takes the Alternating current or
AC power supply as input and gives the direct current or DC power supply as output. The rectifier
is the second block of the regulated power supply. Both half and full-wave rectifier circuits can be
used. The half-wave rectifier circuit rectifies one-half cycle only and makes more power loss but the
full-wave rectifier circuit rectifies both half cycles and makes a very low power loss. For, this reason
the center tapped full wave rectifier or bridge rectifier circuit is mostly used.

Filter Circuit
The output of the rectifier circuit cannot provide the pure DC supply. There are some ripple or AC
components available in the DC power supply. To remove those ripples or make the DC supply
pure, a filter circuit is used. The output of the rectifier is connected to the input of the filter circuit.
Generally, a pure capacitor filter, LC filter, or pi filter is used. According to nature, a capacitor block
DC and allow AC, so it can be connected in parallel for the filtration. On the other hand, an inductor
can block AC and allow DC, so it can be connected in series for filtration purposes. The pi filter
uses both the inductor and capacitor in the same circuit for the filtration.

Regulator Circuit
It is the last and most important block of the regulated power supply. The regulator actually does
the regulation. The regulator circuit uses different types of regulating components and devices
such as a Series inductor, Zener Diode, IC 78XX series, IC 317, etc. A Zener diode can regulate
voltage by just connecting it in reverse bias. IC 7805 is the most common usable regulator IC. It
always provides a constant 5V DC voltage as its output. A Zener diode may not have the 100%
efficiency but the integrated circuits provides the most possible efficiency. Zener diode helps to
regulate the voltage only whereas the voltage regulator ICs can take care of load current also.

Figure 4.14 circuit of DC regulated power supply.

Fig. 4.14 shows the complete circuit of a regulated power supply using zener diode as a voltage
regulating device. As you can see, the regulated power supply is a combination of three circuit
viz., (i) bridge rectifier (ii) a capacitor filter C and (iii) zener voltage regulator. The bridge rectifier
converts the transformer secondary ac voltage (point P) into pulsating voltage (point Q). The
pulsating dc voltage is applied to the capacitor filter. This filter reduces the pulsations in the rectifier
dc output voltage (point R). Finally, the zener voltage regulator performs two functions. Firstly, it
reduces the variations in the filtered output voltage. Secondly, it keeps the output voltage (V out)
nearly constant whether the load current changes or there is change in input ac voltage.

The regulated DC power defines a DC power supply which maintains the DC voltage constant
irrespective of AC input fluctuations in load resistance values. Commonly the bridge rectifier is
used in regulated power supply. Its function is to convert the AC mains voltage to the rectified DC
voltage. The voltage contains small amount of ripple the pulsating voltage is passed through the
filter circuit. Its function is to bypass the filter. The pulsating opposes the AC fluctuations. This
voltage is applied to the voltage regulator. Its function is to maintain the output DC voltage constant
irrespective of fluctuations in AC mains voltage and variations in currents load. Thus, the regulated
power supply gives the stable DC voltage across the load.

Fig. 4.15 shows the waveforms at various stages of regulated power supply. Note that bridge
rectifier and capacitor filter constitute an ordinary power supply. However, when voltage regulating
device is added to this ordinary power supply, it turns into a regulated power supply.

Figure 4.15 waveforms at various stages.

Features of Regulated Power Supply

• Efficiency ranging from 20% to 25%.
• Less complex circuit and less weight.
• Give faster response.
• The cost and noise level is low.

Switched-mode power supply (SMPS)

SMPS, an acronym for Switch Mode Power Supply is a type of power supply unit that produces
regulated dc output by using semiconductor switching techniques. Basically, here the regulated dc
output signal is converted form of ac or dc unregulated input signal. It is sometimes also known as
switched mode power supply or switching mode power supply. This power supply unit is designed
to provide the energy to load from source by using switching devices. It operates by rapidly
switching a transistor between two efficient operating states: cutoff, where there is a high voltage
across the transistor but no current; and saturation, where there is a high current through the
transistor but at a very small voltage drop.

Essentially, the transistor operates as a power switch that creates an AC voltage from the DC input
voltage. This AC voltage can be stepped up or down and then filtered back to DC. SMPSs are
popular due to their high efficiency and high power density. The table below compares some of the
salient features of both linear and switched mode power supplies. The main advantages of a
switching regulator over a linear regulator are the higher efficiency and the greater flexibility offered
by output voltages that are less than, greater than, or of opposite polarity to the input voltage. Fig.
4.16 shows functional block diagram of SMPS.

Figure 4.16 Functional Block Diagram of SMPS

Working principles of SMPS

In the SMPS device, the switching regulators are used which switches on and off the load current
to maintain and regulate the voltage output. Suitable power generation for a system is the mean
voltage between off and on. Unlike the linear power supply, the SMPS carry transistor switches
among low dissipation, full-on and full-off phase, and spend much less time in high dissipation
cycles, which decreases depleted strength.

Initially, the unregulated ac input signal from the source is provided to the input rectifier and filter
circuit. Here the ac input signal is rectified to generate a dc signal and further smoothened to
remove high-frequency noise component from it. The dc output (still in unregulated form) is fed to
the power transistor that acts as a high-frequency switch.

Here the dc signal undergoes chopping (switching). This circuit acts as an ideal switch i.e., when
the power transistor (chopper circuit) is in on state, current passes through it with negligible voltage
drop, and dc signal is obtained at the output terminal of the transistor. However, under the off state
of the power transistor, no current passes through it and leading to cause maximal voltage drop
within it. Thus, at the output side, no voltage will be present. Hence, according to the switching
action of the power transistor dc voltage will be obtained at its output side. The chopping frequency
plays a crucial role in maintaining the desired dc voltage level.

The obtained dc signal at the output of the chopper circuit is then fed to the primary winding of the
high-frequency power transformer. Here the step-down transformer converts the high voltage
signal into a low voltage level which is further provided as input to the output rectifier and filter unit.
This simply filters out the unwanted residuals from the signal in order to provide a regulated dc
signal as the output. The control circuitry present here acts as the feedback circuit for the complete
unit. This involves a comparator along with a pulse width modulator (PWM). The dc output from the
rectifier and filter is fed to the control circuit where the error amplifier which acts as a comparator,
compares the obtained dc voltage with the reference value.

If the dc output is greater than the reference value then the chopping frequency is to be decreased.
The decrease in chopping frequency will reduce the output power and so the dc output voltage.
However, if the dc output is less than the reference value then the chopping frequency is
increased. When chopping frequency is raised then the dc output voltage will get increased. The
pulse width modulator in the above circuit is responsible for generating a fixed frequency pulse
width modulated waveform whose duty cycle controls the chopping frequency. Basically, the duty
ratio is the ratio of on-time to the overall cycle time (i.e., on + off) time. Hence, by making
necessary adjustments in the width of the pulses, the chopping frequency gets adjusted hence,
regulated dc output can be obtained.

Advantages
1. It is highly efficient than linear power supplies. Typically, the efficiency of SMPS lies
between 60% – 95%.
2. Due to the high-frequency operation of the device, the overall size is small and less
bulky. Thus, is compact.
3. It is inexpensive because heat dissipation is less.
4. The obtained output voltage can be more or less than the supply input.

Disadvantages
1. The transient spike generation due to switching action is one of the major issues. This
may lead to cause RF interference thus, isolation is mandatory.
2. The circuit is complex. Also, voltage regulation (controlling) is tricky.
3. Proper filtration is necessary to deal with noise and spikes.

Applications of SMPS

The devices invented under the latest technologies require a highly efficient power supply which is
offered by SMPS. Thus, it finds applications in various power amplifiers, personal computers,
security and railway systems, television sets, motor drives, etc.
Types of SMPS
SMPS is the Switched Mode Power Supply circuit which is designed for obtaining the regulated DC
output voltage from an unregulated DC or AC voltage. There are four main types of SMPS such as

• DC to DC Converter
• AC to DC Converter
• Fly back Converter
• Forward Converter
The AC to DC conversion part in the input section makes the difference between AC to DC
converter and DC to DC converter. The Fly back converter is used for Low power applications. Also
there are Buck Converter and Boost converter in the SMPS types which decrease or increase the
output voltage depending upon the requirements. The other type of SMPS include Self-oscillating
fly-back converter, Buck-boost converter, Cuk, Sepic, etc.

References

1. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/
2. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by Robert L. Boylestad
3. Basic Electrical Engineering by J. B. Gupta
4. Introduction to Electrical Engineering by M. S. Sarma
5. Electrical and Electronic Technology by Edward Hughes
6. Basic Electrical Engineering By D. C. Kulshreshtha