1.

Introduction to Signals
• Definition:
o Periodic Signal: Repeats its pattern over identical time intervals.
o Aperiodic Signal: Does not repeat any pattern over time.
• Examples: o Periodic Signal: The ticking of a clock (each tick occurs at
regular intervals). o Aperiodic Signal: Random honking of car horns on a
busy road.

2. Periodic Signals
• Key Characteristics:
o Completes one full pattern in a specific time, called the Period.
o Cycle: One repetition of the pattern.
• Mathematical Condition:
A signal x(t) is periodic if x(t)=x(t+T), where T is the Fundamental Time Period.
• Real-Life Example:
The sound of a vibrating tuning fork creates periodic waves, as the vibration produces a
consistent pattern.
• Visual Representation: Draw a sinusoidal wave indicating its
periodicity.

3. Aperiodic Signals
• Key Characteristics:
o These signals change without any repeating pattern.
o Found in natural phenomena or random events.
• Real-Life Example:
Earthquake vibrations are aperiodic because they do not follow a predictable pattern.

4. Analog Signals
• Analog signals can be Simple (e.g., Sine wave) or Composite (a
combination of multiple sine waves).

Simple Analog Signal (Sine Wave):

• Mathematical Representation: S(t)=Asin(2πft+ϕ)

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A: Amplitude
f: Frequency

ϕ: Phase

• Characteristics:
1. Amplitude: Maximum height of the wave.
2. Frequency: Number of cycles per second.
3. Phase: Forward or backward shift in the waveform.
• Example: o Amplitude: The loudness of sound waves. A louder sound has a
higher amplitude. o Frequency: The pitch of a musical note (e.g., 440 Hz for
the "A" note).

5. Key Terms with Examples

• Amplitude:
o High Amplitude: A loudspeaker at maximum volume.
o Low Amplitude: A whisper.
• Frequency:
o High Frequency: Chirping of birds.
o Low Frequency: The hum of a refrigerator.
• Phase:

o Two sine waves starting at different points on the time axis

are out of phase.

1. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

TDM is a technique used to share a single communication channel among multiple input lines by
allocating time slots for each.

• Definition: It divides the data flow into units (bits, characters, or blocks) and assigns
fixed time slots to each input line.

• Real-Life Example: Think of a bus schedule. Each bus (data line) gets a specific time slot
to use the same road (channel).

Types of TDM:

1. Synchronous TDM:
 o Time slots are pre-assigned, whether the line has data or not.

o Example: A classroom schedule where each student gets a fixed time to speak,
even if they have nothing to say.

2. Statistical TDM:

o Time slots are assigned dynamically based on the availability of data.

o Example: An elevator stopping only on floors where someone presses the button.

2. Time Slots and Frames in Synchronous TDM

• Key Concept:

o Each input connection sends data in its allotted time slot.

o Duration of each output time slot is shorter than the input time slot.

• Formula:

o Data rate of the link = n×Input Data Rate, where n is the number of connections.

o Output slot duration = Input Slot Duration\ n.

Real-Life Example:

• Imagine a conveyor belt (channel) where each worker (input line) places an item (data
unit) during their fixed turn.

3. Interleaving in TDM

• Definition: A process where bits from each input line are taken in a sequence for
multiplexing.

• Visualization: Two fast-rotating switches synchronized to interleave data.

Real-Life Example:

• A deck of cards being shuffled. Each player (input line) contributes one card (bit) at a
time.
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4. Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing

• Definition: Dynamic allocation of slots, ensuring better bandwidth efficiency by skipping

lines without data.

• Key Feature: Fewer slots in each frame compared to input lines.

• Real-Life Example:

o In a queue at a bank, the teller serves only those customers who have completed
their forms.

5. Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)

• Definition: Combines multiple light signals of different frequencies into one optical fiber
to maximize its capacity.

• Process:

1. Light sources with different wavelengths are combined (multiplexer).

2. Transmitted via optical fiber.

3. Split back into individual signals at the receiver (demultiplexer).

• Key Concept: Uses prisms or similar devices to combine/split light.

• Real-Life Example: A rainbow is nature's WDM, splitting white sunlight into multiple
colors (frequencies).

6. Dense Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (DWDM)

• Definition: A more advanced form of WDM with closely spaced channels to increase
efficiency.

• Advantage: Can handle a higher number of channels.

• Real-Life Example: Modern internet backbones use DWDM for long-distance

communication.

7. Practical Applications
TDM Applications:

• Telephone networks.

• Digital audio broadcasting.

WDM Applications:

• Fiber-optic communication in high-speed internet.

• Cable TV transmission.

Summary Table

Feature Synchronous TDM Statistical TDM WDM

Slot Allocation Fixed Dynamic Frequency-based

Efficiency May waste bandwidth Optimized bandwidth Combines light signals

Key Use Case Voice communication Data transmission Fiber-optic communication

1. Guided Mediums

Guided media are physical transmission paths like cables, which guide signals from one point to
another.

Types of Guided Mediums:

1. Twisted Pair:

o Definition: Two insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce electromagnetic

interference.

o Speed: 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps.

o Example: Telephone lines and Ethernet cables in offices.

o Real-Life Use: Connecting your home router to your ISP.

2. Coaxial Cable:
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o Definition: A single copper conductor surrounded by insulation and shielding,

commonly used in TV and internet setups.

o Speed: 10 Mbps.

o Range: 200 meters.

o Example: Cable TV wires in your house.

o Real-Life Use: Connecting satellite TV or broadband internet.

3. Fiber Optic Cable:

o Definition: Transmits data as light pulses through glass or plastic fibers, offering
high-speed communication.

o Speed: 100 Mbps or more.

o Example: Used in high-speed broadband connections.

o Real-Life Use: Streaming 4K videos, online gaming with no lag.

2. Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)

• Definition: A type of DSL with faster download speeds than upload speeds, tailored for
residential use.

• Key Features:

o High-speed internet access.

o Allows simultaneous internet usage and phone calls.

o Real-time information access.

• Real-Life Example: Your home Wi-Fi connection.

Advantages of ADSL:

• Affordable with no extra wiring.

• Good for gaming due to lower ping.

• Allows phone and internet use simultaneously.

Disadvantages of ADSL:
 • Not available in all areas.

• Distance-sensitive: Works better closer to the ISP’s central office.

• Uneven speed distribution (faster downloads, slower uploads).

1. Wavelength

• Definition: The distance between two corresponding points on adjacent waves (e.g., two
peaks).
• Formula: λ=c/f , where:
o λ: Wavelength.
o c : Speed of propagation.
o f: Frequency.
• Measurement: Micrometers (microns).
• Real-Life Example: A sound wave traveling through the air, where the wavelength
depends on its frequency.

Example Calculation:

• Problem: Speed of sound = 340 m/s, frequency = 20 Hz. Find the wavelength.
• Solution: λ=340/20=17 m.

2. Composite Signals

• Definition: A signal made of multiple sine waves of different frequencies.

• Importance: Single sine waves carry no meaningful information. Composite signals
combine waves to transmit data like voice or video.
• Real-Life Example: Telephone conversations, where different frequencies carry the tone
and pitch of the speaker’s voice.

3. Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth

• Frequency Spectrum: Range of frequencies contained in a signal.

• Bandwidth: The difference between the highest and lowest frequencies in the spectrum.
• Formula: Bandwidth=fh−fi.

Example Calculation:

• Frequencies: 100 Hz, 300 Hz, 500 Hz, 700 Hz, 900 Hz.
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• Bandwidth: 900−100=800 Hz.

4. Real-Life Application

1. Wavelength:
o Used in fiber optics to describe light signals.
o Shorter wavelengths allow higher frequencies for better data transmission.
2. Bandwidth:
o Determines how much data can be transmitted at once.
o Example: Faster internet speeds require higher bandwidth.

Summary Table

Feature Guided Mediums (Lecture 12) Signals and Bandwidth (Lecture 13)
Definition Physical media for transmitting signals Characteristics of signals
Key Types Twisted pair, coaxial, fiber optic Wavelength, composite signals
Importance Provides physical paths for data Determines data transmission quality
Real-Life Use Internet, TV, telephone systems High-speed internet, video streaming