Chapter 2b

Switching & Multiplexing

 Multiplexing
• Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available
bandwidth to achieve specific goals.
• Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing; i.e.,
sharing of the bandwidth between multiple users
• Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared
• Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows
the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link
Frequency Division Multiplexing(FDM)
• An analog technique
• applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is
greater than the combined bandwidths of the
signals to be transmitted.
• Each signal is modulated to a different carrier
frequency
• Carrier frequencies separated so signals do not
overlap (guard bands)
• e.g. broadcast radio
• Channel allocated even if no data
Advantages:
It does not need synchronization between its transmitter
and receiver.
It is simpler and easy demodulation.
Inexpensive
A large number of signals (channels) can be transmitted
simultaneously.
Disadvantages
•It is suffers problem of cross-talk.
•It is used only when a few low speed channels are desired.
•Intermodulation distortion takes place.

Applications:
•It is used to public telephones and in cable TV systems.
•It is used in broad casting.
•It is used in AM and FM broadcasting
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
• WDM is designed to use the high-data-rate
capability of fiber-optic cable.
• WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to
combine optical signals.
• Each color of light (wavelength) carries separate
data channel
• The combining and splitting of light sources are
easily handled by a prism
• Complex
advantages of WDM
➨Full duplex transmission is possible.
➨Easier to reconfigure.
➨Optical components are smaller and more reliable.
➨It provides higher bandwidth.
➨This could be the best approach as it is simple to
implement.
➨High security
disadvantages of WDM
➨Signals can not be very close.
➨Light wave carrying WDM are limited to 2-point circuit.
➨Scalability is a concern as OLT (Optical Line Termination
➨Cost of system increases with addition of optical
components.
Application: Fiber optic network
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

1. TDM is the digital multiplexing technique.

2. the channel/link is divided on the basis of time.
3. Total time available in the channel is divided
between several users.
4. Each user is allotted a particular a time interval
called time slot or time slice during which the data
is transmitted by that user.
5. In TDM the data rate capacity of the transmission
medium should be greater than the data rate
required by sending or receiving devices.
6. Signals are transmitted one-by-one and each signal
will be transmitted for a very short time.
Types of TDM
1. Synchronous TDM
2. Asynchronous TDM or
Statistical TDM
 Synchronous TDM (STDM)

1. In this each device is given same time slot to transmit the

data over the link, irrespective of the fact that the device
has any data to transmit or not.It requires that the total
speed of various input lines should not exceed the
capacity of path.
2. Each device places its data onto the link when its time
slot arrives.
3. If any device does not have data to send then its time slot
remains empty.
4. The various time slots are organized into frames and each
frame consists of one or more time slots dedicated to each
sending device.
5. If there are n sending devices, there will be n slots in
frame i.e. one slot for each device.
Multiplexing Process in STDM
•We can say that the operation of STDM is similar to that of a
fast interleaved switch. The switch opens in front of a device;
the device gets a chance to place the data onto the link.
•Such an interleaving may be done on the basis of a hit, a byte
or by any other data unit.
•In STDM, the interleaved units are of same size i.e. if one
device sends a byte, other will also send a byte and so on.
•As shown in the fig. interleaving is done by a character (one
byte). Each frame consists of four slots as there are four input
devices. The slots of some devices go empty if they do not
have any data to send.
•At the receiver, demultiplexer decomposes each frame by
extracting each character in turn. As a character is removed
from frame, it is passed to the appropriate receiving device.
Advantages:
•Simple
•Order is maintained
•Used in ISDN
Disadvantages:
•Channel capacity can not be fully utilized
•The capacity of single communication line that is used to
carry the various transmission should be greater than the
total speed of input lines.
Asynchronous TDM /statistical time division multiplexing.
•In this time slots are not fixed i.e. the slots are flexible.
•The total speed of input lines can be greater than the
capacity of the path.
•In this if we have n input lines then the frame contains not
more than m slots, with m less than n (m < n).
•the number of time slots in a frame is based on a statistical
analysis of number of input lines.
•In this system slots are not predefined, the slots are
allocated to any of the device that has data to send.
•The multiplexer scans the various input lines, accepts the
data from the lines that have data to send, fills the frame
and then sends the frame across the link.
•If there are not enough data to fill all the slots in a frame,
then the frames are transmitted partially filled.
Advantages of TDM :
1.Full available channel bandwidth can be utilized for
each channel.
2. lntermodulation distortion is absent.
3. TDM circuitry is not very complex.
4. The problem of crosstalk is not severe.
5. Only one carrier in the medium at any time
6. Throughput high even for many users
Advantages of TDM :
1.Synchronization is essential for proper operation.
2.Due to slow narrowband fading, all the TDM channels
may get wiped out.
3.Requires A/D conversions at high rate.
4.Requires larger bandwidth.
5.Probability of error or Bit Error Rate 20
Disadvantages of TDM :
1.Synchronization is essential for proper
operation.
2.Due to slow narrowband fading, all the
TDM channels may get wiped out.
3.Requires reliable ‘Synchronozation’.
4.Requires A/D conversions at high rate.
5.Requires larger bandwidth.
6.Probability of error or Bit Error Rate

21
Circuit Switching and Packet
Switching

22
Overview
• Networks are used to interconnect many devices.
• We have checked with Local Area Networks.
• Now, wide area networks
— Since the invention of the telephone, circuit switching
has been the dominant technology for voice
communications.
— Since 1970, packet switching has evolved
substantially for digital data communications. It was
designed to provide a more efficient facility than circuit
switching for bursty data traffic.
• Two types of packet switching:
– Datagram (such as today’s Internet)
– Virtual circuit (such as Frame Relay, ATM)

23
Switched Communications Networks
• Long distance transmission between stations
(called “end devices”) is typically done over a
network of switching nodes.
• Switching nodes do not concern with content of
data. Their purpose is to provide a switching
facility that will move the data from node to node
until they reach their destination (the end
device).
• A collection of nodes and connections forms a
communications network.
• In a switched communications network, data
entering the network from a station are routed
to the destination by being switched from node to
node.
24
Simple Switching Network

25
Switching Nodes
• Nodes may connect to other nodes, or to
some stations.
• Network is usually partially connected
—However, some redundant connections are
desirable for reliability
• Two different switching technologies
—Circuit switching
—Packet switching

26
Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching:
— There is a dedicated communication path between two
stations (end-to-end)
— The path is a connected sequence of links between
network nodes. On each physical link, a logical channel
is dedicated to the connection.
• Communication via circuit switching has three
phases:
— Circuit establishment (link by link)
• Routing & resource allocation (FDM or TDM)
— Data transfer
— Circuit disconnect
• Deallocate the dedicated resources
• The switches must know how to find the route to
the destination and how to allocate bandwidth
(channel) to establish a connection.

27
Circuit Switching Properties
• Inefficiency
— Channel capacity is dedicated for the whole duration of
a connection
— If no data, capacity is wasted
• Delay
— Long initial delay: circuit establishment takes time
— Low data delay: after the circuit establishment,
information is transmitted at a fixed data rate with no
delay other than the propagation delay. The delay at
each node is negligible.
• Developed for voice traffic (public telephone
network) but can also applied to data traffic.
— For voice connections, the resulting circuit will enjoy a
high percentage of utilization because most of the time
one party or the other is talking.
— But how about data connections?

28
Packet Switching Principles
• Problem of circuit switching
—designed for voice service
—Resources dedicated to a particular call
—For data transmission, much of the time the
connection is idle (say, web browsing)
—Data rate is fixed
• Both ends must operate at the same rate during the
entire period of connection
• Packet switching is designed to address
these problems.

29
Basic Operation
• Data are transmitted in short packets
— Typically at the order of 1000 bytes
— Longer messages are split into series of packets
— Each packet contains a portion of user data plus some
control info
• Control info contains at least
— Routing (addressing) info, so as to be routed to the
intended destination
— Recall the content of an IP header!
• store and forward
— On each switching node, packets are received, stored
briefly (buffered) and passed on to the next node.

30
Use of Packets

31
Advantages of Packet Switching
• Line efficiency
— Single node-to-node link can be dynamically shared by
many packets over time
— Packets are queued up and transmitted as fast as
possible
• Data rate conversion
— Each station connects to the local node at its own speed
• In circuit-switching, a connection could be
blocked if there lacks free resources. On a
packet-switching network, even with heavy
traffic, packets are still accepted, by delivery
delay increases.
• Priorities can be used
— On each node, packets with higher priority can be
forwarded first. They will experience less delay than
lower-priority packets. 32
Packet Switching Technique
• A station breaks long message into
packets
• Packets are sent out to the network
sequentially, one at a time
• How will the network handle this stream of
packets as it attempts to route them
through the network and deliver them to
the intended destination?
—Two approaches
• Datagram approach
• Virtual circuit approach

33
Datagram
• Each packet is treated independently, with
no reference to packets that have gone
before.
—Each node chooses the next node on a
packet’s path.
• Packets can take any possible route.
• Packets may arrive at the receiver out of
order.
• Packets may go missing.
• It is up to the receiver to re-order packets
and recover from missing packets.
• Example: Internet 34
Datagram

35
Virtual Circuit
• In virtual circuit, a preplanned route is
established before any packets are sent,
then all packets follow the same route.
• Each packet contains a virtual circuit
identifier instead of destination address,
and each node on the preestablished
route knows where to forward such
packets.
—The node need not make a routing decision for
each packet.
• Example: X.25, Frame Relay, ATM
36
 Virtual
Circuit

A route between stations is

set up prior to data transfer.
All the data packets then
follow the same route.
But there is no dedicated
resources reserved for the
virtual circuit! Packets need
to be stored-and-forwarded.

37
Virtual Circuits v Datagram
• Virtual circuits
— Network can provide sequencing (packets arrive at the
same order) and error control (retransmission between
two nodes).
— Packets are forwarded more quickly
• Based on the virtual circuit identifier
• No routing decisions to make
— Less reliable
• If a node fails, all virtual circuits that pass through that
node fail.
• Datagram
— No call setup phase
• Good for bursty data, such as Web applications
— More flexible
• If a node fails, packets may find an alternate route
• Routing can be used to avoid congested parts of the
network 38
Comparison of
communicatio
n switching
techniques