UNIT – I

DCCIRCUITS

Electrical Quantities, Ohm’s law, Kirchoff’s laws, Resistors in series and

parallel combinations, Current and Voltage division rules, Node and Mesh
Analysis.

ELECTRICALQUANTITIES–DEFINITIONS,
SYMBOLS AND UNITS

• Charge:
A body is said to be charged positively, if it has deficit of electrons. It is said
to be charged negatively if it has excess of electrons. The charge is measured
in Coulombs and denoted by Q (or) q.
1Coulomb=Chargeon6.28×1018electrons.
• Atom:
To understand the basic concepts of electric current, we should know the
Modern Electron Theory. Consider the matter which is in the form of solid,
liquid (or) gas. Smallest particle of matter is molecule. Minute Particles are
calledmolecules,whicharethemselvesmadeupofstillminuteparticlesknown as
Atoms.

Atom:MinutetinyParticleswiththecentralPartNucleus.

Atom

Proton Electrons Neutrons

Figure 1.1
ThesearethetypesoftinyParticlesinanAtom.
Protons:Itischargedwithpositivecharge.
Neutron:Itisunchargedandhenceitisneural.
Electron:Itisrevolvingaroundnucleus.Itischargedwithsmallandconstant
amount of negative charge.

InanAtom,Noofelectrons=NoofProtons

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• ElectricPotential:
When a body ischarged, either electronsare supplied on it (or) removed from
it. In both cases the work is done. The ability of the charged body to do work
iscalledelectricpotential.Thechargedbodyhasthecapacitytodo,bymoving the
other charges by either attraction (or) repulsion.
The greater the capacity of a charged body to do work, the greater is its
electric potential. And the work done, to charge a body to 1 Colomb is the
measure of electric potential.
Workdone W
Electricpotential,V= =
Charge Q

W=Workdoneperunitcharge.
Q=ChargemeasuredinCoulombs.

Unitofelectricpotentialis Joules/Coulomb(or)Volt.IfW=1joule;Q=1
Coulomb, then V = 1/1 = 1 Volt.
Abodyissaidtohaveanelectric potentialof1Volt,ifoneJouleofwork isdone
to chargea bodytoone Coulomb.HencegreatertheJoules/Coulomb on a charged
body, greater is electric potential.

• PotentialDifference:
Thedifferenceinthepotentialsoftwochargedbodiesiscalled potential difference.
ConsidertwochargedbodiesAandBhavingPotentialsof5Voltsand3 Volts
respectively.

A=+5V B=+3V
PotentialDifferenceis+2v.
UnitofpotentialdifferenceisVolts.
PotentialdifferenceissometimescalledVoltage.
• ElectricCurrent:
Flowoffreeelectronsthroughaconductoriscalledelectriccurrent.Itsunitis Ampere
(or) Coulomb / sec.
Charge(q) q
Current,(I)= = Coulombs/
SecTime(t)t
dq
Indifferentialform,i= Coulombs/Sec
dt
Consideraconductingmateriallikemetal,sayCopper.Alargenumberof
freeelectronsareavailable.TheymovefromoneAtomtotheotherat random, before
an electric force is applied. When an electric potential

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differenceisappliedacrossthemetallicconductors,freeelectronsstartmoving
towards the positive terminal of the cell. This continuous flow of electrons
formselectriccurrent.Accordingtomodern electronictheory,thedirectionof
conventionalcurrentisformpositiveterminaltonegativeterminalthroughthe
external circuit.

Flowof
conventionalCurrent

Figure 1.2

Thus,awireissaidtocarryacurrentof1Amperewhenchargeflowsthrough it at the
rate of one Coulomb per second.

• Resistance:
Consider a conductor which is provided some potential difference. The free
electrons start moving in a particular direction. While moving, the free
electronsmaycollidewithsomeAtoms(or)Molecules.Theyopposetheflow
ofelectrons.Resistanceisdefinedasthepropertyofthesubstanceduetowhich
restricts the flow of electrons through the conductor. Resistance may, also be
defined as the physical property of the substance due to which it opposes (or)
restricts the flow of electricity (i.e. electrons) through it. Its unit is Ohms.
Awireissaidtohavearesistanceof1ohmifapotentialdifferenceof1V
acrosstheendscausescurrentof1Amptoflowthroughit(or)awireissaidto have a
resistance of 1 ohm if it releases 1 Joule, when a current of 1A flows through
it.

• LawsofResistance:
Theelectricalresistance(R)ofametallicconductordependsuponthevarious
Factors as given below,

(i) Itisdirectlyproportionaltolengthl,ie,Rαl
(ii)
It is inverselyproportionalto the cross sectionalareaof the
l
Conductor, ie, R α
A
(iii) Itdependsuponthenatureofthematerialoftheconductor.
(iv) Itdependsuponthetemperatureoftheconductor.

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FromtheFirstthreepointsandassumingthetemperaturetoremainconstant, we
get,
l
Rα
A
1
R=ρ
A
ρ (‘Rho’) is a constant of proportionality called Resistivity (or) Specific
Resistanceofthematerialoftheconductor.Thevalueofρdependuponthe
natureofthematerialoftheconductor.

• SpecificResistance(or)Resistivity:
1
Resistanceofa wireisgivenbyR= ρ
A

Ifl=1metre,A=1m2then,R=ρ.Theresistanceofferedbyawireoflength
1metreandacrosssectionalareaofCross-sectionof1m2iscalledthe Resistivity of
the material of the wire.

Current
l=1m A=l m2

Figure 1.3
If a cube of onemeterside is taken insteadof wire, ρ is definedas below., Letl =
1metre, A=1 m2,thenR= ρ.“Hence,the resistancebetweenthe
oppositefacesof1metrecubeofthegivenmaterialiscalled the
resistivityofthatmaterial”.Theunitofresistivityisohm-metre
RA Ωm2
[ρ= = =Ωm(ohm-metre)]l
m
lm
Current

lm

Figure 1.4

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• Conductance(or)SpecificConductance:
Conductanceistheinducementtotheflowofcurrent.Hence,Conductanceis the
reciprocal of resistance. It is denoted by symbol G.
1 A A
G= = =σ
R ρl l
GismeasuredinmhoSymbolforitsunitis( U)
1
σ=
ρ

Here,σiscalledtheConductivity(or)SpecificConductanceofthematerial

• Conductivity(or)SpecificConductance:
Conductivityistheproperty(or)natureofthematerialduetowhichitallows flow of
current through it.
A l
G=σ (or) σ=G
l A
Substitutingtheunitsofvariousquantitiesweget

mho*m
σ= =mho/metre m2

TheS.IunitofConductivityismho/metre.

• ElectricPower:
Therateatwhichtheworkisdoneinanelectriccircuitiscalledelectric power.
Workdoneinanelectriccircuit
ElectricPower=
Time
When voltage is applied to a circuit, it causes current to flow through it. The
work done inmoving the electrons in a unit time is called Electric Power. The
unitofElectricPowerisJoules/sec(or)Watt.P=VI=I2R=V2/R

• ElectricalEnergy:
Thetotalworkdoneinanelectriccircuitiscalledelectrical energy.

ie,ElectricalEnergy=(ElectricalPower)*(Time)
V2
Electrical Energy=IRt=
2 t
R

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ElectricalEnergyismeasuredinKilowatthour(kwh)

Problem 1.1 The resistance of a conductor 1 mm2 in cross section and 20 m

longis0.346Ω.Determinethespecificresistanceoftheconductingmaterial.

GivenData
Areaofcross-sectionA=1mm2 Length,
l = 20 m
Resistance,R=0.346Ω
l
Formulaused:SpecificresistanceoftheConductingMaterial, R=
A
RA
=
l
Solution:AreaofCross-section, A=1mm2
=1*10−6m2
−6
=1*10 *0.346=1.738*10-8Ωm
20

SpecificResistanceoftheconductingMaterial,=1.738*10−8Ωm.

Problem 1.2 A Coil consists of 2000 turns of copper wire having a cross-
sectional area of 1 mm2. The mean length per turn is 80 cm and resistivity of
copperis0.02μΩmatnormalworkingtemperature.Calculatetheresistanceof the
coil.

Givendata:
Noofturns=2000
Length/turn=80cm=0.8m
Resistivity,=0.02µΩm=0.02*10-6Ωm=2*10-8Ωm
Crosssectionalareaofthewire,A=1mm2=1*10-6m2

Solution:
Meanlengthofthewire,l=2000*0.8=1600m. We
l
know that, R =
A
2*10−8*1600
SubstitutingtheValues,R= =32Ω
1*10−6
Resistanceofthecoil=32Ω

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Problem1.3Awireoflength1mhasaresistanceof2Ω.Whatistheresistance
ofthesecondwire,whosespecificresistanceisdoublethatoffirst,ifthelength of
wire is 3m and the diameter is double that of first?

GivenData:
Forthefirstwire: l1=1m,R1= 2 Ω,1=(say)
d1=d(say)

FortheSecondwire:l2=3m,d2=2d,ρ2=2ρ

Solution:
d
R=ρl1=ρ*1[Radiusofthewire=r2,wherer= ]
1 1
A1 πd2 2
4
4ρ
ie,R= =................................... (1)
1
πd2

R = ρl2=2ρ*3=6ρ (2)
2 2A
2 π(2d)2 πd2
4
Dividingequation(1)by(2),
4d2 4 R
* =1
d 2 6 6 R2
6R 6*2
R= 1= = 3Ω
2
4 4
R2=3Ω

TheResistanceofthesecondwire,R2=3Ω

Problem 1.4 A Rectangular copper strip is 20 cm long, 0.1 cm wide and 0.4
cm thick.Determinetheresistance between(i)opposite endsand (ii)opposite
sides. The resistivity of copper is 1.7*10 -6 Ωcm.

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(i) OppositeEnds
Wide,w=0.1cm
Thickness,t=0.4cm
Length,l= 20cm
(ii) OppositeSides:
Wide,w=0.1cm
Thickness,t=20cm
Length, l = 0.4 cm
(a)Area= w*t= 0.1*0.4=0.04cm2
l=1.7*10−6*20 −
=0.85*103Ω
R1= 0.04
A
R1=0.85m [Oppositeends,referringtoFigure1.5]

Area,A=w*t= 0.1*20 =20cm2

1.7*10−6*0.4
R= =0.34*10−6Ω[OppositeSidesireferringtoFigure1.6]
2
2

R2=0.34Ω

Problem 1.5 A silver wire of length 12m has a resistance of 0.2Ω. Find the
specificresistivityofthematerial.Thecross-sectionalareaofthewireis
0.01cm2.

R=
l
 length, l =12m
A
Resistance,R=0.2Ω
A=0.01cm2
−4
=RA=0.2*0.01*10
l 12
=1.688*10−8Ωm

OHM’SLAWANDITSLIMITATIONS

The relationship between DC potential difference (V) current (I) and

Resistance (R) in a DC circuit was first discovered by the scientist George
Simon Ohm, is called Ohm’s law.
• Statement:
The ratio of potential difference between any two points of a conductor to the
currentfollowingbetweenthemisconstant,providedthephysicalcondition

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V
ie, =Constant
I

(or)

V
=R I
V=I* R
Where,Ristheresistancebetweenthetwopointsoftheconductor.
It can also be stated as, provided Resistance is kept constant, current is
directly proportional to the potential difference across the ends of the
conductor.
V2
Power,P=V*I=I
2
R=
R
• Illustration:

LetthepotentialdifferencebetweenpointsAandBbeVvoltsandcurrent flowing be
V
I Amp. Then, = Constant ,
I
V
=R (say)
I

I R
A B
V
Figure 1.7

Weknowthat,ifthevoltageisdoubled(2V),thecurrentflowingwillalsobe doubled
V
(2I). So, the ratio remains the same (ie, R). Also when voltage is
I
measuredinvolts,currentinampere,thenresistancewillbeinohms.

• GraphicalrepresentationofOhm’slaw

[Slopelineofthegraphrepresentstheresistance]

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Voltage
(volts)

Slope=Resistance

I (amps)
Figure1.8

• Limitations inohm’slaw:

(i) Ohm’slawdoesnotapplytoallnon-metallicconductors.Foreg.
Silico Carbide.
(ii) Italsodoesnotapplytonon-lineardevicessuchasZenerdiode,etc.
(iii) Ohm’slawistrueformetalconductoratconstanttemperature.Ifthe
temperature changes the law is not applicable.

• Problemsbasedonohm’slaw:
Problem1.6.Anelectricheaterdraws8Afrom250Vsupply.Whatisthe power
rating? Also find the resistance of the heater element.

Givendata:

Current,I =8A
Voltage,V =250V

Solution:

Power rating, P=VI= 8* 250 = 2000Watt

V 250
Resistance (R) = = = 31.25 Ω
I 8

Problem1.7Whatwillbethecurrentdrawnbyalampratedat250V,40W, connected
to a 230 V supply.
GivenData:
Rated Power = 40 W
RatedVoltage=250V
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Solution:
Resistance,
V2 2502
R= = =1562.5Ω
P 40
V
Current,I= = 230
=0.1472A
P 1562.5

Problem1.8 ABatteryhasanemfof12.8voltsandsuppliesacurrentof3.24
A.Whatistheresistanceofthecircuit?HowmanyCoulombsleavethe battery in
5 minutes?

Solution:
V 12.8
Circuit Resist=ance, R = =4Ω I 3.24
Charge flowing in 5 minutes = Current × time in seconds
Chargeflowingin5minutes=3.24×5×60=960Coulomb

Problem1.9Ifaresistoristodissipateenergyattherateof250W,findthe resistance
for a terminal voltage of 100V.

Givendata:
Power =250W
Voltage=100V
Solution:
V2 100 2
Resistance, R= = =
40 Ω
 250
R=40Ω.
Problem 1.10 A voltmeter has a resistance of, 20,200 Ω. When connected in
series with an external resistance across a 230 V supply, the instrument reads
160 V. What is the value of external resistance?

70V

230V

160V

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Thevoltagedropacrossexternalresistance,R

VR=230−160=70V
160 1
Circuitcurrent,I= = A
20,000 125
Weknowthat,V =IR
70 =IR
1
= R
70
125
R=8750Ω

COMBINATIONOFRESISTORS
• Introduction:

The closed path followed by direct Current (DC) is called a DC Circuit A d.c
circuitessentiallyconsistofasourceofDCpower(eg.Battery,DCgenerator,
etc.)theconductorsusedtocarrycurrentandtheload.TheloadforaDCcircuit
isusuallyaresistance.InaDCcircuit,loads(i.e,resistances)maybeconnected in
series, parallel, series– parallel. Hence the resistor has to be connected in the
desired way for getting the desired resistance.
Resistancesinseries(or)seriescombination
The circuit in which resistances are connected end to end so that there is one
path for the current flow is called series circuit. The voltage source is
connected across the free ends. [A and B]

AI R1 R2 R3 RT
B AI B

V2 V3
V1

Figure1.10

In the above circuit, there is only one closed path, so only one current flows
throughallthe elements.Inotherwords,iftheCurrentissamethroughallthe
resistors, the combination is called series combination.

• TofindequivalentResistance:

Let, V = Applied voltage

I=Sourcecurrent=Currentthrougheachelement

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V1,V2,V3arethevoltageacrossR1,R2andR3respectively.

ByOhmslaw, V1=IR1
V2=IR2andV3=IR3

But V=V1+V2+V3= IR1+IR2+IR3=I (R1+R2+R3)

V=I(R1+R2+R3)
V=IRT
V
=R
I T

( )
Theratioof VI isthetotalresistancebetweenpointsAandBandiscalled the total
(or) equivalent resistance of the three resistances
RT=R1+R2+R3
1 1 1 1
Also, = + + (Intermsofconductance)
GT G1G2 G3

Equivalentresistance(RT)isthesumofallindividualresistances.

• Conceptsofseriescircuit:
i. Thecurrentissamethroughallelements.
ii. Thevoltageisdistributed.Thevoltageacrosstheresistorisdirectly
proportional to the current and resistance.
iii. Theequivalentresistance(RT)isgreaterthanthegreatestindividual
resistance of that combination.
iv. Voltagedropsareadditive.
v. Powersareadditive.
vi. Theappliedvoltageisequalstothesumofdifferentvoltagedrops.

VoltageDivisionTechnique: (or)TofindV1,V2,V3intermsofVandR1, R2, R3:

EquivalentResistance,RT=R1+R2+R3By
V V
ohm’s low, I = =
RT R1+R2+R3

V VR1
V=IR= R=
1 1 1
R R+R+R
T 1 2 3

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 V VR2
V=IR= R=
2 2 2
R R+R+R
T 1 2 3

Voltageacrossanyresistanceintheseriescircuit,
Rx
Vx = RV

T
Note:IftherearenresistorseachvalueofRohmsinseries,thenthetotal Resistance is
given by,
RT=n*R
• Applications:
 When variable voltage is given to the load, a variable resistance
(Rheostat) is connected in series with the load. Example: Fan
regulator is connected in series with the fan.
 Theseriescombinationisusedwheremanylampoflowvoltagesare to be
operated on the main supply. Example: Decoration lights.
 Whenaloadoflowvoltageistobeoperatedonahighvoltagesupply,a
fixedvalueofresistanceisconnectedinserieswiththeload.
• DisadvantageofSeriesCircuit:
 If a break occurs at any point in the circuit, no current will flow and
the entire circuit becomes useless.
 If 5 numbers of lamps, each rated 230 volts are to be connected in
seriescircuit,thenthesupplyvoltageshouldbe5x230=1150volts. But
voltage available for lighting circuit in each and every house is
only230V.Hence,seriescircuitisnotpracticableforlightingcircuits.
 Sinceelectricaldevices havedifferentcurrentratings,theycannotbe
connected in series for efficient operation.
• Problemsbasedonseriescombination:
Problem 1.11Threeresistors30 Ω,25Ω,45 Ωareconnected in seriesacross
200V.Calculate(i)Totalresistance(ii)Current(iii)Potentialdifferenceacross each
element.

Figure1.13
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(i) TotalResistance(RT)
RT=R1+R2+R3
RT=30+25+45=100Ω
V 200
(ii) Current,I= = = 2A
RT 100

(iii) Potentialdifferenceacrosseachelement,
V1=IR1=2*30=60 V

V2=IR2= 2*25= 50V

V3=IR3= 2*45= 90V

Problem1.12Findthevalueof‘R’inthecircuitdiagram,givenbelow.

50Ω 10 Ω R

100V

200V Figure1.12

Weknowthat,V1=IR1
I=V1/R1=100/50=2 A
Similarly,V2=IR2=2*10= 20 V

Totalvoltagedrop,V=V1+V2+V3
V3=V–(V1+V2)=200–(100+20)V3= 80 V
V3=IR3,R3=V3/I=80/2=40Ω
R3=40Ω

Problem 1.13 A 100W, 200V bulb is put in series with a 60W bulb across a
supply. What will be the current drawn? What will be the voltage across the
60W bulb? What will be the supply voltage?
100W 60W

Figure1.13

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Powerdissipatedinthefirstbulb,P1=V1I
Current,I=P1/V1=100/200=0.5A

Powerdissipatedinthesecondbulb,P2=V2I Voltage
across the 60 W bulb,
P 60
V= 2 = =120V
2
I 0.5
Thesupplyvoltage,V=V1+V2= 200+120
V=320V
Thesupplyvoltage,V=320V.
Problem1.14Anincandescentlampisratedfor110V,100W.Usingsuitable resistor
how can you operate this lamp on 220V mains.

100W,110V R

+ –
220 V

Figure1.14
Power 100
Ratedcurrentofthelamp,I= ==0.909A,I=0.909A
Voltage 110

For satisfactory operation of the lamp, Current of 0.909A should flow.

Whenthevoltageacrossthelampis110V,thentheremainingvoltagemust be
across R
Supplyvoltage=V=220Volts
VoltageacrossR=V−110Volts
ie,VR=220−110= 110V
Byohm’slaw,VR=IR

110=0.909R
R=121Ω

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Problem 1.15 The lamps in a set of decoration lights are connected in series.
If there are 20 lamps and each lamp has resistance of 25Ω, calculate the total
resistanceofthesetoflampandhencecalculatethecurrenttakenfromasupply of
230 volts.
GivenData:Supplyvoltage,V=230 volts
Resistanceofeachlamp,R=25Ω
Nooflampsinseries,n=20

Solution: TotalResistance,RT=n*R=20*25
RT=500Ω

V 230
Currentfromsupply.I= = = 0.46A
RT 500

Problem1.16Thefieldcoilofad.cgeneratorhasaresistanceof250Ωandis
suppliedfroma220Vsource.Ifthecurrentinthefieldcoilistobelimitedto
0.44A.Calculatetheresistancetobeconnectedinserieswiththecoil.

GivenData:Sourcevoltage,V=220volts,I=0.44A
Fieldcoilresistance,Rf =250Ω

Solution:LettheresistanceinserieswithRf beRin Ohms.

Totalresistance,RT=Rf+R=250+R
Current,I=0.44A
V 220
Byohm’slaw,R = = = 500 Ω
T
I 0.44
250+R=500Ω

R=500–250=250Ω
R=250Ω

ResistanceinParallel(or)ParallelCombination

If one end of all the resistorsare joined to a common point and the other ends
are joined to another common point, the combination is said to be parallel
combination. When the voltage source is applied to the common points, the
voltage across each resistor will be same. Current in the each resistor is
different and is given by ohm’s law.
Let R1, R2, R3 be three resistors connected between the two common
terminals A and B, as shown in the Figure 1.15(a)..

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I1 R1
I2 R2
A B
I3 R3 RT =R

I
I
+ –
+– V
V I= V/R

Figure1.15

V
I= (1)
R

LetI1,I2,I3arethecurrentsthroughR1, R2,R3reVspectively.Byohm’s law,

 V V (2)
I1=R,I2= ,I3= 
R
V R
 1 2 3 

Totalcurrentisthesumofthreeindividualcurrents,
IT=I=I1+I2+I3 (3)
Substitutingtheaboveexpressionforthecurrentinequation(3),
V V V V R R1
= + +
R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R2 R3

ReferringtoFigure(1.15(b)),RT=R

1 1 1 1 1 (4)
= = + +
R RT R1 R2 R3
Hence, in the case of parallel combination the reciprocal of the equivalent
resistance is equal to the sum of reciprocals of individual resistances.
Multiplying both sides of equation (4) by V 2, we get
V 2 V2 V 2 V 3
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
ie,PowerdissipatedbyR=PowerdissipatedbyR1+PowerdissipatedbyR2
+Powerdissipatedby R3

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WeknowthatreciprocalofResistanceiscalledasconductance.
Conductance=1/Resistance
G= 1/R]
Equation(4)canbewrittenas,
G=G1+G2+G3

• ConceptsofParallelCircuit:
• Voltageissameacrossalltheelements.
• Allelementswillhaveindividualcurrents,dependsuponthe
resistance of element.
• Thetotalresistanceofaparallelcircuitisalwayslesserthanthe
smallest of the resistance.
• IfnresistanceeachofRareconnectedinparallelthen,

1 nRT
=
R
(or)
R
R=
T n
• Powersareadditive.
• Conductanceareadditive.
• Branchcurrentsareadditive.

• CurrentDivisionTechnique:
Case(i)Whentworesistancesareinparallel:
TworesistanceR1andR2ohmsareconnectedinparallelacrossabatteryof
V(volts)CurrentthroughR2isI2andthroughR2isI2ThetotalcurrentisI.
I1 R1

I2 R2
I

+V–
Figure1.16

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ToexpressI1andI2intermsofI,R1andR2(or)tofindbranchcurrentsI1,I2: I2 R 2 =
I1R1

2
I=I1R1 (1)
R2

Also,thetotalcurrent,I=I1+I2 (2)

I1R1
Substituting(1)in(2),I1+ =I
R2
I1R2+I1R1=I R2
I1(R1+R2)=IR2
IR2
I1=(R +R)
1 2

= IR1
Similarly,I2
(R1+R2 )
TofindtheequivalentResistance,(RT):

Hence,thetotalvalueoftworesistancesconnectedparallel isequaltotheir product

divided by their sum i.e.,
ProductofthetwoResistance
EquivalentResistance=
SumofthetwoResistane
Case(ii)Whenthreeresistancesareconnectedinparallel.LetR1,R2andR3be
resistors in parallel. Let I be the supply current (or) total current. I 1, I2, and
I3are the currents through the resistors R1, R2and R3.
I1 R1

I2 R2

I
I3 R3

+ –

Figure1.17

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TofindtheequivalentResistance(RT):
1 1 1 1 1
= = + +
R RT R1 R2 R3
1 R1R2+R2R3+R3R1RT
=
R1R2R3
R1R2R3
= RT
RR+R R+RR
12 23 31

TofindthebranchcurrentsI1,I2andI3:

Weknowthat,I1+I2+I3=I (1)
Also,I3R3=I1R1=I2R2

Fromtheaboveexpression,wecangetexpressionsforI 2andI3intermsofI1and
substitute them in the equation (1)

I1R1 I1R1
I+ + =I
1 R2 R3
R R
I(1+ + 1)=I
1
R2 R3
I1(R2R3+R3R1+R1R2)
=I
R2 R3

SimilarlywecanexpressI2andI3as,

• Advantagesofparallelcircuits:
 The electrical appliances rated for the same voltage but different
powers can be connected in parallel without affecting each other’s
performance.
 If a break occurs in any one of the branch circuits, it will have no
effect on the other branch circuits.

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology

• Applicationsofparallelcircuits:
 Allelectricalappliancesareconnectedinparallel.Eachoneofthem
canbe controlled individually will the help of separateswitches.
 ElectricalwiringinCinemaHalls,auditoriums,Housewiringetc.

Comparisonofseriesandparallelcircuits:
SeriesCircuit ParallelCircuit
Thecurrentissamethroughallthe Thecurrentisdivided,inversely
elements. proportional to resistance.
Thevoltageisdistributed.Itis Thevoltageisthesameacrosseach
proportional to resistance. elementintheparallelcombination.
The total (or) equivalent resistance Reciprocal of the equivalent
is equal to sum of individual resistance is equal to sum of
resistance, ie. reciprocals of individual
RT=R1+R2+R3Hence,thetotalresistan 1 1 1 1
resistances,ie, = + +
ceisgreater than the greatest RT R1R2 R3
resistance in the circuit. Totalresistanceislesserthanthe
smallestresistancesinthecircuit.
Thereisonlyonepathfortheflow of Therearemorethanonepathfor the
current. flow of current.

• Problemsbasedonparallelcombinations:
Problem1.17WhatisthevalueoftheunknownresistorRshowninFigure
1.18.Ifthevoltagedropacrossthe500Ωresistoris2.5V. Alltheresistorare in
ohms.

+ A I C I2
550 50
I1
12V R 500

– B D

Figure1.18
GivenData:
V500= 2.5V
V 2.5
I= 500= =0.005A
2
R 500

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 SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
V50=Voltageacross50Ω
V50=I2R=0.005*50=0.25V
VCD=V50+V500=0.25+2.5=2.75V
V550=Dropacross550Ω=12−2.75=9.25V
V 9.25
I= 550= =0.0168A R
550
I=I1+I2→I1=I−I2=0.0168− 0.005
I1= 0.0118A
V
R= CD=I 2.75 =232.69Ω
1 0.0118

R=232.69Ω
Problem1.18Threeresistors2Ω,3Ωand4Ωareinparallel.Howwillbea
totalcurrentof8Aisdivided.

Figure1.19

Thisgivencircuitcanbereducedas,3Ωand4Ωareconnectedinparallel. Its
3* 4 12
equivalent resistances are, = = 1.714Ω
3+4 7

Figure1.20

1.714Ωand2Ωareconnectedinparallel,itsequivalentresistanceis0.923Ω
1.714*2
=0.923
2+1.714

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8A
0.923Ω

Figure1.21

V=IR =8*0.923
V=7.385V

V=7.385 =3.69A
Branchcurrents,I1=
R1 2
V 7.385=2.46A
I= =
2 R2 3
V=7.385=1.84A
I=
3 R3 4

Problem1.19Whatresistance mustbeconnectedinparallelwith10Ωtogive an
equivalent resistance of 6Ω

Figure1.22

Risconnectedinparallelwith10ΩResistortogivenanequivalentresistance of 6 Ω.
10*R
=6
10+R
10R=(10+R)6
10R=60+6R
10R– 6R=60
60
R= =15Ω
4
R=15Ω

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Problem1.20TworesistorsR1andR2areconnectedinParallelandaVoltage
of200VDCisappliedtotheterminals.Thetotalcurrentdrawnis 20A,R1=30 Ω.
Find R2 and power dissipated in each resistor, for the figure 1.23.

20A

I1 I2
200 V R2

Figure1.23

GivenData:

V=200V,I=20A,R1=30Ω
V 200=6.667A
Solution:I= =
1
R1 30
I1+I2=I
I2=I−I1
=20−6.667 =13.33A
IR
1
I2=R +R
1 2
20*30
13.33=
30 +R2
(30+R2)13.33= 600
13.33R2= 600− 400
13.33R2= 200

200=15Ω
R=
2
13.33
R2=15Ω

Powerdissipatedin30Ω,P1=VI1=200*6.667
P1=1333W
Powerdissipatedin15Ω,P2=VI2
P2=200*13.33=2667
P2 = 2667 W
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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
Problem1.21Calculatethecurrentsuppliedbythebatteryinthegiven circuit as
shown in the figure 1.24.

Figure1.24

Solution:Theabovegivencircuitcanberedrawn as,
I
I1 I2

R1 R2

Figure1.25
R1andR2areinparallelacrossthevoltageof48volts.
Equivalent Resistance, R = R1R2=8*16=16 Ω
T
R+R 8+16 3
1 2
RT=5.33
V
I= = 48
=9A
R 5.33

Problem1.22Calculatethetotalresistanceandbatterycurrentinthegiven circuit

R3=12Ω
16V

B R2 =16Ω D

Figure1.26

Thegivenabovecircuitcanbere-drawnas,

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 SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology

Figure1.27

8Ω,16Ω,12Ωareconnectedinparallel.Itsequivalentresistance,
R1R2R3
RT = RR+R R +R
R
12 23 31

I
6V
3.692

Figure1.28

8*6*12
R T= =3.692Ω
128+192+96

RT=3.692 Ω
V
I= = 16
=4.33A
R 3.692

Problem1.23IntheCircuitshowninthefigure1.29,calculate
(i) Thecurrentinallresistors.
(ii) Thevalueofunknownresistance‘x’
(iii) TheequivalentresistancebetweenAandB.

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Solution:Asalltheresistorsareinparallel,thevoltageacrosseachoneis same.
Give that current through 6 Ω , ie, I6Ω=5A
Voltageacross6Ω=5×6=30volts.
V30 30
Hence,currentthrough30Ω,I = = =1A
30
R 30
V 30
Similarly,currentthrough15Ω,I = 15= =2A
15
R 15
TotalCurrent,I=I6+Ix+I30+I15
10=5+Ix+1+2
IX=2A

Hence,thecurrentflowingthroughthe‘X’Resistoris,IX=2A
ValueoftheResistor‘X’isgivenby,
30 30
X= = =15Ω
Ix 2
Let,theequivalentresistanceacrossAB=RT
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
RT 6 x 30 15
1 5 +2 +1+2 1
= =
RT 30 3
RT=3Ω
Series—ParallelCombination

As the name suggests, this circuit is a combination of series and parallel

circuits. A simple example of such a circuit is illustrated in Figure 130. R 3and
R2 are resistors connected in parallel with each other and both togetherare
connected in series with R1.
I1 R2
R1
R3
I
I2
I

Figure1.30

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EquivalentResistance:RTforparallelcombination.
R2R3
Rp= R+R
2 3

Totalequivalentresistanceofthecircuitisgivenby,

RT=R1+RP
RR
TR=R1+ 2 3
R+R
2 3

R2R3
Voltageacrossparallelcombination=I* .
R2+R3

• ProblemsbasedonSeries–ParallelCombination:
Problem1.24Inthecircuit,findthecurrentinalltheresistors.Also calculate the
supply voltage.

Figure1.31
Voltageacross15,V15=I15R=815=120V

Resistors2Ω,5Ω,10Ωareconnectedinparallel,itequivalentresistanceis given by,

2*5*10 =1.25Ω
R=
P
25+ 510 +102
VoltageacrosstheparallelCombinationisgivenby
Vp=V2=V5=V10=IRP=81.25=10V

TotalsupplyVoltage,V=V15+Vp
V=120+10 =130V
V=130V

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Hence,theCurrentthroughtheparallelcombinationoftheresistorsaregiven by,
V2 10
Currentthrough2Ωresistor,I= = =5A
2
R 2
V5 10
Currentthrough5ΩResistor,I= = =2A
5
R 5
V10 10
Currentthrough10ΩResistor, I= = =1A
10
R 10

TheCurrentof8Aacrosstheparallelcombinationisdividedas5A,2A,and 1A.

Problem1.25Calculatetheequivalentresistanceofferedbythecircuittothe voltage
source and also find its source current

Figure1.32
Solution:Thegivenabovecircuitcanbere-drawnas

Figure1.33
20Ωand10Ωresistorsareconnectedinparallel,itsequivalentresistanceis given by,
20 *10
= 6.667 Ω
20+10
Thegivencircuitisreducedas,

Figure1.34

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 SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
6.667Ωand5Ωresistorsareconnectedinparallel,itsequivalentresistanceis
6.667*5
givenby,
=2.857Ω
6.667+5

Thecircuitisreducedas,

Figure1.35
20Ωand2.857Ωareconnectedinparallel.Itequivalentresistanceis,
20*2.857
=2.497 Ω
20+ 2.857
TheCircuitisre-drawnas,
ISource

2.497Ω
50V

Figure1.36

HencetheequivalentresistanceoftheCircuitisRT=2.497Ω=2.5Ω

SourceCurrentoftheCircuitisgiven by,
V 50
I = = =20A
source
R 2.5
Problem1.26FindtheequivalentresistancebetweentheterminalsAand B.

Figure1.34
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Solution:

3Ωand3ΩareconnectedinSeries,itequivalentresistanceis,(3+3)=6Ω.
TheCircuitgetsreducedas

Figure1.38

6Ωand6Ωareconnectedinparallel.Thecircuitgetsreducedas,
6*6
=3hms. 6
+6

Figure1.39

3Ωand3Ωareconnectedinseries(3+3=6Ω).
ThereducedCircuitis,

Figure1.40

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 SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
6*6
6Ωand6Ωareconnectedinparallel.Itsequivalentresistance, =3Ω
6+6
Thecircuitcanbereducedas,

Figure1.41
3Ωand3Ωareconnectedinseries.(3+3=6Ω).

Figure1.42
6*6
6Ωand6Ωareconnectedinparallel.Itequivalentresistance, =3Ω
6+6

Figure1.43
3Ωand3Ωareconnectedinseries,thereducedCircuitis3+3 =6Ω

Figure1.44

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
6Ωand6Ωareconnectedinparallel.
6*6
=3Ω.TheequivalentresistancebetweentheterminalsAandB 6 +6
givenbyRAB=3Ω.

3Ω

A B
Figure1.45

RAB=3Ω

Problem1.27 DeterminethevalueofRifthepowerdissipatedin10Ω
resistoris90W.

Figure1.46

Solution:

100Ωand10Ωareconnectedinparallel.
100*10
Itsequivalentresistanceis, =9.09Ω
100+10

Thecircuitisreducedas,

Figure1.47

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 SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
Currentof2Aflowsthroughthe9.09Ωresistor.Voltageacross9.09Ωis given
by,
V9.09=I9.09R
V9.09=29.09=18.18V

SimilarlyvoltageacrosstheunknownresistorVR,
VR=V−V9.09=50−18.18= 31.818V

Figure1.48
HencetheCurrentthrough40Ω,80Ωresistorscanbefoundoutwiththe voltage drop
of 31.818V across it.
V 31.818
= R= =0.397 A
I80 80 80

VR 31.818
I40 = = =0.7954 A
40 40

HencecurrentthroughtheunknownresistorRisIR,
IR=I−I80+I40
IR=2−(0.397+0.7954)=0.8075A

Hence,thevalueoftheunknownResistorRisgivenby
VR 31.818
R= = =39.4Ω
IR 0.8075
ThevalueoftheunknownresistorRisgivenby,R=39.4Ω.

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Problem1.28Calculatethefollowingforthecircuitsgiven,

Figure1.49

(i) TotalresistanceofferedtotheSource.
(ii) TotalCurrentfromtheSource.
(iii) PowerSuppliedbytheSource.
Solution:12Ωand6ΩareconnectedinParallel.
12*6
Itsequivalentresistance, =4Ω.Thereducedcircuitisgivenas,
12+6

Figure1.50
4*12
4Ωand12Ωareconnectedinparallel. =3Ω
12 +4

Figure1.51

7 Ωand3Ωareconnectedinseries,7+3=10Ω Total

resistance offered to the Source, R = 10 Ω

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 SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
100
TotalCurrentfromtheSource,I= =10A
10

I =10A
PowersuppliedbytheSource,P=I2R=10210=1000W

P=1000W.
Problem 1.29 A letter A is Constructed of an uniform wire of 1 Ω resistance
per cm.Thesignsoftheletterare60cmlongandthe crosspieceis30cmlong,
Apexangle60o. Findthe resistanceof the letterbetweentwo endsofthe legs.

30 60° 30

30 30 30

Figure1.52

Solution:
Thegivencircuitcanberedrawnas,

Figure1.53

60Ωand30Ωareconnectedinparallel
60*30
=2Oohms 60
+ 30
20Ω

30Ω 30Ω

Figure1.54
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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology

EquivalentResistance=80 Ω.

Problem1.30Findthecurrentsuppliedbythebattery.

I
Figure1.55

Solution:
Thegivencircuitcanbere-drawn as,

24V 8Ω 12Ω

Figure1.56
8Ωand12Ωconnectedinparallel.
8*12
=4.8Ω
8+12

Reducedcircuitis,
I

24V
4.8Ω

Figure1.57
V 24
Current,I= = =5A
R 4.8
I =5A

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 SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
Problem1.31Findthecurrentsuppliedbythebatteryforthefigureshown below.

I A 6Ω
C
4Ω
12V
4Ω 8Ω

D
B 2Ω

Figure1.58

Solution:

Thegivenabovecircuitcanberedrawn as,

Figure1.59
6*4
4Ωand6Ωareconnectedinparallel. =2.4Ω
6 +4

Similarly,2Ωand8Ωareconnectedinparallel.
2*8
=1.6 Ω
8+2
Thereducedcircuitcanberedrawnas,

1.6Ω
12V

Figure1.60

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology

2.4Ωand1.6Ωareconnectedinseries.2.4 +1.6=4Ω

Figure1.61
4*4
4Ωand4Ωareconnectedinparallel =2Ω
4+4
Thereducedcircuitis,
I

12V 2ohms

Figure1.62

V 12
I = = =6A
R 2
CurrentI,suppliedbythebattery=6A.

Problem1.32TwoResistorsR1=2500ΩandR2=4000Ωarejoinedinseries and
connected to a 100v supply. The voltage drop across R 1 and R2 are
measuredsuccessivelybyavoltmeterhavingaresistanceof50,000Ω.Findthe sum
of the Reading.
Solution:
Case(i)Avoltmeterisconnectedacross2500 Ω.

Figure1.63

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 SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
2500Ωand50,000Ωareconnectedisparallel.
2500*50000
=2381ohms
2500+50000

Figure1.64

2381Ωand4000Ωareconnectedinseries.
2381+4000=6381Ω

V 100
CurrentI = = =0.01567A
R 6381

Voltagedropacross,theResisterR1ismeasuredbyconnectingavoltmeter
havingresistanceof50,000acrossR1.HenceVAbevoltagedropacross R1

VA=IR=0.01567*2381
VA= 37.31V
Case(ii)Voltmeterisconnectedacross4000 Ω.

Figure1.65

4000Ωand50,000Ωareconnectedinparallel.
4000*50000
= 3703.7ohms
4000+50000

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology


Figure1.66

V 100
Current,I= = =0.0161A
R 6203.7

Voltage drop across the resistor R2 is measured by connecting a voltmeter

havingresistanceof50000acrossR2.Hence,VBbethevoltagedropacrossR2.
VB=IR=0.6161*3703.7
VB=59.7V
Thetotalvoltagedrop=VA+VB
V=37.31+59.7
V= 97V
Problem1.33Findthevalueof‘R’andthetotalcurrentwhenthetotalpower dissipated
in the network is 16W as shown in the figure.

Figure1.67
Solution:
TotalPower(P)=16w
P 16
TotalCurrent,I= = =2A

V 8
P 16
TotalResistance,(R )= = =4 Ω
AB
I2 4
TotalResistancebetweenAandBisgiven by,

2*8 4
RAB = +
*R2+8 4+R

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 4(4+R)=1.6(4+R)+4RR=6Ω.

KIRCHOFF’SLAWS

Kirchhoff’scurrentlaw

The kirchoff’s current law states that the algebraic sum of currents in a nodeis
zero.
Itcanalsobestatedthat“sumofincomingcurrentsisequaltosumof
outgoingcurrents.”
Kirchhoff’scurrentlawisappliedatnodesofthecircuit.Anodeisdefined
astwoormoreelectricalelementsjoinedtogether.Theelectricalelementsmay be
resistors, inductors capacitors, voltage sources, current sources etc.

Consideraelectricalnetworkasshownbelow.

R1

R2
I2 R4 I4

R3

I3

Figure1.68

Fourresistorsarejoinedtogethertoformanode.Eachresistorcarries different
currents and they are indicated in the diagram.

I1→Flowstowardsthenodeanditisconsideredaspositivecurrent. (+I 1)
I2→Flowsawayfromthenodeanditisconsideredasnegativecurrent. (- I2)
I3→Flowstowardsthenodeanditisconsideredaspositivecurrent. (+I3)
I4→Flowsawayfromthenodeandhenceitisconsideredasnegative current (-
I4)

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
ApplyingKCLatthenode,bydiffinition-1algebraicsumofcurrentsina node is
zero.

+I1–I2+I3–I4=0 (1)

takingtheI2&I4toother side
I1+I3=I2+I4 (2)
Fromequation(2)wegetthedefinition–2.WhereI1&I3arepositivecurrents
(Flowing towards the node) I2& I4 are negative currents. (Flowing away from
the node).

Kirchoff’svoltageLaw:(KVL)

Kirchhoff’svoltagelawstatesthat“sumofthevoltagesinaclosedpath(loop) is
zero”.
Inelectriccircuittherewillbeclosedpathcalledasloopswillbepresent.
TheKVLisappliedtotheclosedpathonlytheloopwillconsistsofvoltage
sources, resistors, inductors etc.
In the loop there will be voltage rise and voltage drop. This voltage rise
andvoltagedropdependsonthedirectiontracedintheloop.Soitisimportant to
understand the sign convention and the direction in which KVLis applied
(Clock wise Anti clock wise).

• SignConventions

+ + R –
V I
–

(a) (b)

Figure1.69

Considera batterysource V asshownin the figure 1.69(a). Here

positiveofthebatteryismarkedwith+signandnegativeofthebatteryismarkedwith
– sign.
When we move from + sign to – sign, it is called voltage drop.
Whenwemovefrom–signto+sign,itiscalledasvoltagerise.

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 SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology

KVL
_

When KVL is applied in Anti clockwise direction as shown above it is

called as voltage drop. A voltage drop is indicated in a loop with “—” sign (–
V)

KVL

For the same battery source if the KVL is applied in clock wise direction
we move from – sign to + sign. Hence it is called as Voltage Rise. A Voltage
rise indicated in the loop with + sign. (+V).
Similarly in the resistor the current entry point is marked as positive (+
sign) and current leaving point is marked as negative sign. (– sign).

For the resistor shown in the diagram above, if KVL is applied in clock
wisedirectionthenitiscalledasvoltagedrop.VoltagedropinKVLequation
mustbeindicated withnegativesign(–).–IR.

For the resistor shown in the diagram above, if KVL is applied in anti
clockwise direction then it is called as voltage rise. Avoltage rise is indicated
in the KVL equation as positive. i.e. + IR.
InshorttheaboveexplanationissummarizedbelowinaTable.

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology

S.No. Element KVLinclockwise KVLinanticlockwise

1. + _ + _ + _

Drop Rise
V +V

R_ I+ R _ R_
I+ I+
2.
Drop Drop
IR +IR

• ProcedureforKVL:
* IdentifytheloopsandNamethem.
* Markthebranchcurrentsandnamethem.
* Applythesignconvention.
* Selectaloop&applyKVLeitherinclockwiseorAnticlockwiseand frame
the equation.
* Solvealltheequationsoftheloop.

• ProblemsbasedonKirchhoff’slaws

Problem1.34Forthegivencircuitfindthebranchcurrentsandvoltagesby applying
KVL.

Figure1.70

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
Solution:

Figure1.71

ConsiderloopABEF&ApplyKVLinCLKwisedirection
100–5I–6I1=0
ButI=I1+I2

100–5(I1+I2)–6I1=0
100–5I1–5I2–6I1=0
−11I1–5I2+100=0
11I1+5I2= 100 (1)

ConsiderloopBCDEB&ApplyKVLinCLKwisedirection
−10I2–8I2+ 6I1= 0
−18I2+6I1= 0
6I1=18I2
I1=3I2 (2)

SubI1inequ(1)

11(3I2)+ 5I2=100
33I2+5I2=100
38I2=100
100
I2= = 2.63Amps.
38

I2=2.63Amps

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SubI2inequ(2)

I1=3(2.63)=7.89Amps
I1=7.89Amps
I=I1+I2=10.52
I=10.52Amps.

VoltageAcross5= 5I= 5 10.52

=52.6volts
VoltageAcross6= 6I1= 67.89
=47.34volts
VoltageAcross10=10I2=102.63
=26.3volts
VoltageAcross8= 8I2= 82.63
=21.04volts

(Or)

TheaboveproblemcanbesolvedbyapplyingKVLinAnticlockwise directions.

ConsiderloopABEF&ApplyKVLinanticlockwisedirection
6I1+5I −100=0

ButI=I1+I2

6I1+5(I1+I2)−100=0
6I1+5I1+5I2=100

11I1+5I2=100 (3)

ConsiderloopBCDEB&ApplyKVLinanticlockwisedirection
8I2+10I2–6I1=0
18I2= 6I1
I1= 3I2 (4)
equations(3)&(1)areidentical

equations(2)&(4)areidentical

HencewegetthesameanswerirrespectiveofdirectionsofapplyingKVL.

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Problem1.35Calculatethebranchcurrentin15ΩresistorbyApplying
kirchhoff’slaw

Figure 1.72

Figure72batteryvoltagevalue25voltmissing

Solution:

NametheloopandMarkthecurrentdirections

Figure1.73

ConsidertheloopABEFA&applyKVLinCLKwise 10–
10I1–25 (I1+I2 )–5I1= 0
10–10I1–25I1–25I2–5 I1=0
–40I1–25I2+10=0
40I1+25I2=10 (1)
ConsidertheloopBCDEBandApplyKVLinCLKwisedirection

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ConsidertheloopBCDEBandApplyKVLinCLKwisedirection

15I2–25+20I2+25(I1+I2)= 0

15I2–25+20I2+25(I1+I2)=0

15I2–25+20I2+25I1+25I2=0

25I1+ 60I2–25=0

25I1+60I2=25 ........................ (2)

Solve(1)&(2)&findI2alone
(1) 251000I1+625I2=25
(2)40 1000 I1+2400I2

(A)− (B) –1775I2=−750

I2=0.42Amps.

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Currentin15Ωresistoris0.42Amps.

Problem1.36Forthegivennetworkfindthebranchcurrentin8Ωand voltage
across the 3 Ω by applying KVL

Figure1.74

Solution:

Nametheloopandmarkthecurrentdirectionsandapplysignconvention.

Figure1.75

ConsiderloopABDAandapplyKVL -8I1+8
−12I1–3I2+40=0
12I1+3I2=40
ConsiderloopBCDBandapplyKVL
-8(I1-I2)– 4(I1-I2+I3)+3 I2=0
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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology

I2–4I1+4I2-4I3+3I2=0 (1)
–12I1+15I2–4I3=0 (2).
ConsiderloopABCAandapplyKVL
–12I1–8(I1–I2)+5I3=0
–12I1–8I1+8I2+5I3=0
–20I1+8I2+5I3=0 (3)

Solveequ(2)&(3)andcanceloutI3
(2) x5–60I1+75I2–20I3=0
(3) x4–80I1+32I2+20I3=0
Add the above two equations  – 140 I1+ 107I2= 0 (4)

Solve equ (4) & (1) and find I1& I2

12I1+3I2=40 (1)
–140I1+107I2=0 (4)

(1)x1071284I1+321I2=4280
(4) x3 –420I1+321I2=0
Subtracttheabove two 1704I1=4280
I1=2.51Amps

SubI1in(4)

-140×2.51+107I2=0
-351.4+107I2=0
107I2=351.4
I2=3.28Amps
Currentin8Ωresistor=I1-I2
=2.51- 3.28
=-0.77Amps.

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
Negativesignindicatesthatcurrentflowsintheoppositedirectionofour assumption.

Voltagein3Ωresistor=3I2
=3×3.28 =9.84volts

Note:Sincethereare3loopsthreeunknowncurrentsI1,I2andI3shouldbe named in the

loop.

Problem1.37Forthegivennetworkshownbelowfindthebranchcurrents by
applying KVL and also find the voltage across 5 Ωresistor.

50V

Figure1.76
Solution:
Nametheloopandassumethebranchcurrents.

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology

Figure1.77

ConsidertheloopABDAandapplyKVL.
–4I1– 5 I3+I2=0
–4I1+I2– 5I3=0 (1)

ConsidertheloopBCDBandapplyKVL.
–3(I1–I3)+3(I3+I2)+5I3=0
–3I1+3I3+3I3+3I2+5I3=0
–3I1+3I2+11I3=0 (2)

ConsidertheloopADCAandapplyKVL.
–6(I1+I2) –I2–3(I3+I2)+50=0
–6I1–6I2–I2–3I3–3I2= –50
–6I1–10I2–3I3=–50
6I1+10I2+3I3=50 (3)

Fromeqnis(1)&(2)Cancel I3
–4I1+I2– 5I3=0 (4)
–3I1+3I2+11I3=0 (5)

(4) x3 –12I1 +3I2 –15I3=0

(5) x4–12I1+12I2–44I3=0

Bysubtractingtheabovetwoequations–9I2–59I3=0
9I2=–59I3

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
I2=– 6.56I3 (6)
–3I1+3I2+11I3=0 (7)
6I1+10I2+3I3= 50 (8)

(7) x2–6I1+6I2+22I3=0
(8) 6I1+10I2+3I3=50

By adding the above two equations 16I2+ 28I3 = 50 (9)

Sub eqn (6) in (9)
16(–6.56 I3)+25I3=50
–104.96+25 I3= 50
–79.96I3=50
I3=–0.625 Amps (10)
Subeqn(10)in(6)
I2=–6.56x (–0.625)
I2=4.1Amps (7)
Sub(10)&(11)ineqn(8)
6I1+10I2+3I3=50
6I1+10(4.1)+3(–0.625)=50
6I1+41– 1.875=50
6I1=10.875
I1=1.81 Amps

Currentin6Ωresistor=(I1+I2)=(1.81+4.1)=5.91Amps Current in
4 Ω resistor = I1= 1.81 Amps
Currentin5Ωresistor=I3=–0.625Amps
Currentin3Ωresistor=(I1–I3)=1.81+0.625=2.44Amps Current in
3 Ω resistor = (I3+I2) = 3.475 Amps
Currentin1Ωresistor=I2=4.1Amps.
VoltageAcross5Ωresistor=5×0.625=3.13volts.

Problem1.38FortheCircuitshownbelowdeterminevoltages(i)Vdfand (ii)Vag

Figure1.78

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology

Solution:
Markthecurrentdirectionsandmarkthepolarity
+

Figure1.79

ApplyKVLtoloopabcda 10
–2I1-3I1–5I1=0
–10I1=–10
I1=1Amps

ApplyKVLtoloopefghe
5I2– 10 + 3I2+ 2I2=0
10I2=10
I2=1 Amps

To find Vdf:
TracethepathVdf

Figure1.80

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology
Vdf=–5(I1–3I1+10+2I2+5I2)
Vdf= –5 –3 +10 +2 +5
Vdf=9 Volts.
Vdf=–9Volts[∵because-signondside+onfside]

TofindVag:

Figure1.81

ApplyKVLtotheaboveTrace –
2I1-10 –3I2= VagVag=
–2 – 10 – 3
Vag=–15

Vag=15Volts.(Withaside+w.r.t g)

Problem1.39 FindthecurrentsthroughR2,R3,R4,R5andR6ofthenetwork.

Figure1.82

R2=8 Ω
R3=4 Ω
R4=6Ω
R5=20Ω
R6=10Ω

Solution:
Namethecircuitandmarkthecurrentdirectionsandpolarityasshownbelow

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology

Figure1.83

ApplyKVLtotheloop ACBA.
–4(I1–I2)+6I3+8I2= 0.
–4I1+4I2+6I3+8I2=0
–4I1+12I2+6I3=0 (1)
ApplyKVLtotheloopBCDB
–6I3–10(I1–I2+I3)+20(I2–I3)=0
–6I3–10I1+10I2–10I3+20I2– 20I3=0
–10I1+30I2–36I3=0 (2)

ApplyKVLtoloop EABDFE
–8I2–20(I2–I3)+12 (2–I1)=0
–8I2–20I2+20I3+24–12I1=0
–28I2+20I3+24–12 I1= 0
–12I1– 28I2+20I3=-24
12I1+28I2–20 I3=24 (3)

Solvingequ.(1)(2)&(3).Weget I1=
1.125 Amps
I2=0.375Amps
I3=0 Amps

CurrentinR2=0.375Amps
R3=0.75Amps
R4=0Amps
R5=0.375Amps
R6= 0.75 Amps

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SathyabamaInstituteofScience&Technology

NODALANALYSIS

▪ In nodal analysis, node equations relating node voltages are

obtained for a multi node network.
▪ Thesenodevoltagesarederivedfromkirchoff’scurrentlaw(KCL)
• In this method the number of equations required to be solved is N-1,
where N is the number of nodes.
• Anodeisajunctioninanetworkwherethreeormorebranchesmeet.
Oneofthenodesinanetworkisregardedasreference(datum)
node and the potential of the other nodes are definedwith
reference to the datum node.

CaseI.

Considerfigure1LetthevoltagesatnodesaandbbeVaandVb.Applying
Kirchoff’scurrentlaw(KCL)atnode‘a’we get

R1 I3R3
I1a b I5 R 5
I2 I4
V1 R2 R4 V2
V0

Figure1.84

I1+I2+I3=0 (1)

60
 S
at
h
y
a
b
a
m
a

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
it
y

61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
Problem1.42UsetheNodalMethodtofindVbaandcurrentthrough30Ω

resistorinthecircuitshown−

70
71
.

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73
74
75
76
77
78
79
 Questions
PartA

S.NO QUESTION
1 DefineElectric Current
2 WhatisElectric Potential?
3 ListtheapplicationsofseriesCircuits.
4 StateOhm’sLaw
5 StateKirchhoff’sVoltageandCurrentLaw
6 WhatistheEquivalentResistancewhentworesistorsare
connected in parallel?
7 WhatarethelimitationsofOhm’sLaw?
8 Whatis Resistance?
9 DefineElectric Charge.
10 DifferentiateSeriesandParallelCircuits.

PartB

S.No. Questions
1. Inthe circuitshown,determinethecurrentthroughthe2Ωresistorandthe
totalcurrentdeliveredbythe battery.

2. Forthenetworkshownin figurebelow, calculatethe currentI

3. Forthegiven circuitdeterminethecurrentsinallresistors

80
4. Determinethemeshcurrentsinthegivencircuit.

5. Applynodalvoltagemethodandfindthepowerdissipatedinthe8ohmsresistor on the
circuit shown
2ohms 2ohms 4ohms

30V
4 8
ohms ohms 20V

References:
1. MittleB.N.&AravindMittle,BasicElectricalEngineering, 2nd
Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 2011.
2. SmarajitGhosh,FundamentalsofElectricaland
ElectronicsEngineering, 2nd edition,PHILearning PrivateLtd, 2010..
3. SudhakarandShyamMohanPalli,”CircuitsandNetworks;“Analysis and
Synthesis”, 3rd Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 2008.

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 SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
DEPARTMENTOFELECTRICALANDELECTRONICSENGINEERING

UNIT-2ACCIRCUITS
SEEA1101-BASICELECTRICALANDELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

1
INTRODUCTION
We have seen so far about the analysis of DC circuit. A DC
quantity is one which has a constant magnitude irrespective of
time. But an alternating quantity is one which has a varying
magnitude and angle with respect to time. Since it is time
varyinginnature,atanytime itcanbe representedinthreeways
1) Byits effective value 2) By its average value and 3) By its
peak value.
Someimportantterms
1. Waveform
Awaveformisagraphinwhichtheinstantaneous value of
anyquantity is plotted against time.

Fig2.1(a-c)

2. AlternatingWaveform
Thisiswavewhichreversesitsdirectionatregularly
recurringinterval.
3. Cycle

Figure2.2
Itisasetofpositiveand negativeportion ofwaveforms.

2
4. Time Period
The time required for an alternating quantity, to
completeonecycleiscalled thetimeperiodandis denoted
byT.
5. Frequency
Thenumber ofcyclesper secondiscalledfrequencyand
isdenotedbyf. Itismeasuredin cycles/second (cps)(or)
Hertz
f◻1/T
6. Amplitude
The maximum value of an alternating quantity in a cycle
is called amplitude. It is also known as peak value.
7. R.M.Svalue[RootMeanSquare]
The steadycurrent when flowing through a given resistor
for a given time produces the same amount of heat as
produced by an alternatingcurrent when flowing through
the same resistor for the same time is called R.M.S value
of the alternating current.

RMSValue◻

8. AverageValueofAC
The average value of an alternating current is defined as
the DC current which transfers across any circuit the
same change as is transferred by that alternating current
during the same time.

AverageValue=AreaUnderonecomplete cycle/Period.

9. FormFactor(Kf)
It is the ratio of RMS value to average value

FormFactor=RMSvalue/AverageValue

10. PeakFactor(Ka)
ItistheratioofPeak(or)maximumvaluetoRMS value.

PeakFactorKa=Peak Value/RMSvalue
3
Analytical method to obtain the RMS, Average value,
FormFactorandPeakfactorfor sinusoidal current(or)
voltage

Figure2.3

4
ExpressionforRMS,Average,FormFactor,Peak
factor for Half waverectifier

Figure 2.4

5
1) RMSvalue

6
7
Examples:

Theequationofanalternatingcurrentisgivenby

i=40sin 314t

Determine

(i) Maxvalueofcurrent
(ii) Averagevalueofcurrent
(iii) RMSvalueofcurrent
(iv) Frequencyandangularfrequency
(v) FormFactor
(vi) PeakFactor

Solution:

i=40sin 314t

Weknowthati=Imsinωt

So Im=40
ω=314rad/sec
(i) Maximumvalueofcurrent=40A
(ii) Averagevalueofcurrent
2I 240
= m= = 25.464A
IAvg
 
(iii) RMSvalueofcurrent
Im 40
I = = =28.28Amp
rms
2
 314
(iv) Frequencyf = = 50Hz
2 2
RMS 28.28
(v) FormFactor = =1.11
Avg 25.46
max
PeakFactor = 40
(vi) = =1.414
RMS 28.28

8
PHASORREPRESENTATIONOFSINUSOIDAL
VARYINGALTERNATINGQUANTITIES
The Phasor representation is more convenient in handling
sinusoidal quantities rather than by using equations and
waveforms. This vector or Phasor representation of alternating
quantity simplifies the complexity of the problems in the AC
circuit.

Figure 2.5

OP=Em

Em–themaximum valueofalternatingvoltagewhichvariessinusoidally

Anyalternatingsinusoidalquantity(Voltage orCurrent)canberepresentedby a
rotating Phasor, if it satisfies the following conditions.

1. Themagnitudeofrotatingphasorshouldbeequaltothemaximum
value of the quantity.
2. Therotatingphasor shouldstartinitiallyatzeroandthenmovein
anticlockwise direction. (Positive direction)
3. Thespeedoftherotatingphasorshouldbeinsuchawaythatduring its one
revolution the alternating quantity completes one cycle.

Phase
Thephaseisnothingbutafraction oftimeperiodthathaselapsedfrom reference or
zero position.

InPhase
Twoalternatingquantitiesaresaidto bein phase,iftheyreachtheirzero value
and maximum value at the same time.

Considertwoalternatingquantitiesrepresentedbytheequation

i1=Im1sin
i2=Im2sin
9
 canberepresentedgraphicallyasshowninFig2.6(a).

Figure2.6(a)Graphicalrepresentationofsinusoidalcurrent

From Fig 2.6(a), it is clear that both i1 and i2 reaches their zero and their
maximum value at the same time even though both have different maximum
values. It is referred as both currents are in phase meaning that no phase
differenceisbetweenthetwoquantities.Itcanalsoberepresentedasvectoras shown
in Fig 2.6(b).

Figure2.6(b)Vectordiagram

OutofPhase
Twoalternatingquantitiesare saidtobeout ofphase iftheydonotreachtheir
zeroandmaximumvalueatthe sametime.ThePhasedifferences between these
twoquantitiesarerepresentedintermsof‘lag’and‘lead’anditismeasuredin radians
or in electrical degrees.

Lag

Laggingalternatingquantityisonewhichreachesitsmaximumvalueand zero
value later than that ofthe other alternating quantity.

Considertwoalternatingquantitiesrepresentedbytheequation:

i1=Im1sin(t-)
i2= Im2sin (t)

Theseequationscanberepresentedgraphicallyandinvector formasshown in Fig

2.7(a) and Fig 2.7(b) respectively.

10
 Figure2.7a

Figure2.7b

Itisclear fromtheFig2.7(a),thecurrenti1 reachesits maximum valueand its zero

value with a phase difference of ‘’ electrical degrees or radians after current
i2. (ie) i1lags i2and it isrepresented bya minus sign in the equation.

Lead

Leadingalternatingquantityis one whichreachesitsmaximumvalueandzero

value earlier than that ofthe other alternating quantity.

Considertwoalternatingquantitiesrepresentedbytheequation: i1=
Im1sin (t + )
i2=Im2sin(t)

Theseequationscanberepresentedgraphicallyandinvectorformasshown in Fig
2.8(a) and Fig 2.8(b) respectively.

Figure2.8(a)

Figure2.8(b)

The Fig 2.8(a) clearlyillustrates that current i1 has started alreadyand reaches
its maximum value before the current i2. (ie) i1 leads i2 and it is represented by
a positive sign in the equation.

Note:
1. Twovectorsaresaidtobeinquadrature,ifthePhasedifference
11
 betweenthemis90.
2. Twovectorsaresaidtobeinantiphase,ifthephasedifference
between them is 180.

REVIEWOF‘J’ OPERATOR
Avectorquantityhasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Avector’A’isrepresented in
two axis plane as shown in Fig 3.10

Figure2.9

InFig2.9,OMrepresentsvectorA
representsthephaseangleofvectorA

A=a+jb
a–Horizontalcomponentoractivecomponentorinphasecomponent
b–Verticalcomponentorreactivecomponentorquadraturecomponent

The magnitudeofvector'A'=
PhaseangleofVector‘A’= =tan-1(b/a) Features of
j – Operator
1. j= −1
ItindicatesanticlockwiserotationofVectorthrough90.
2. j2=j.j =-1
Itindicatesanticlockwiserotationofvector through180.
3. j3=j.j .j=-j
Itindicatesanticlockwiserotationofvector through270.
4. j4=j .j.j. j=1
Itindicatesanticlockwiserotationofvector through360.
5. –jindicatesclockwiserotationofvectorthrough90.
j
6.
1 1.j j
= == =−j

j j.j j2 −1

Avector canbewrittenbothinpolar formandinrectangularform. A = 2

+ j3

12
Thisrepresentationisknownasrectangularform.
Magnitude of A = |A| = =3.606
PhaseangleofA= =tan-1(3/2)=56.31
A=|A| 
A=3.60656.31

Thisrepresentationisknownaspolarform.

Note:
1. AdditionandSubtractioncanbeeasilydoneinrectangular form.
2. Multiplicationanddivisioncanbeeasilydoneinpolar form.

Examples:

A=2+j3;B=4+j5.

AddVector AandVector Banddeterminethemagnitudeand Phaseangleof

resultant vector.

Solution:

A+B=2+j3+4+j5=6+ j8
Magnitude = |A+B|= =10.0

Phaseangle==tan-1(B/A) =tan-1(8/6)=53.13

A=2+j5;B=4–j2.
SubtractVectorAandVectorBanddeterminethemagnitudeandPhase angle of
resultant vector.

Solution:

A–B=2+j5–(4–j2)=2+j5–4+j2=-2+j7
Magnitude = |A–B|= =7.280

Phaseangle==tan-1(B/A)=tan-1(7/-2)=-74.055

A=2+j3;B=4–j5.
Perform AxBanddeterminethemagnitudeandPhaseangleofresultant vector.

Solution:
A= 2+j3
|A|=22+32 =3.606
=tan-1(3/2)=56.310

13
 A=3.60656.310 B
= 4 – j5
|B|= =6.403
=tan-1(-5/4)=-51.340 B=
6.403 -51.340
AXB=3.606 56.310X6.403-51.340
=3.606X6.403(56.310+(-51.340))
= 23.0894.970

A=4–j2;B=2+j3.
A
Perform anddeterminethemagnitudeandPhaseangleofresultantvector.
B

Solution:
A=4–j2
|A|= =4.472
=tan-1(-2/4)=-26.565 A=
4.472  -26.565
B=2+ j3

|B|= =3.606
=tan-1(3/2)=56.310 B=
3.606 56.310
A 4.472-26.565 4.472  
= =  - =1.240-82.875
-26.56556.310

B 3.60656 .310 3.606

ANALYSIS OFACCIRCUIT
Theresponseofanelectriccircuitforasinusoidalexcitationcanbestudiedby passing
an alternating current through the basic circuit elements like resistor (R),
inductor (L) and capacitor(C).

PureResistiveCircuit:

In the purelyresistive circuit, a resistor (R) is connected across an alternating

voltage source as shown in Fig.2.10

14
 Figure2.10

Lettheinstantaneousvoltageappliedacrosstheresistance(R)be
V= Vmsinωt

15
PhasorRepresentation:

Figure2.11

Comparingequations,wefindthatappliedvoltageandtheresultingcurrentare
inphasewitheachother.Thereforeinapurelyresistivecircuitthereisnophase
difference between voltage and current i.e., phase angle is zero (Ф=0).
If voltage is taken as reference, the phasor diagram for purely resistive
circuit is shown in Fig.2.11

WaveformRepresentation:

Figure2.12

The waveform for applied voltage and the resulting current and power were
shown in Fig.2.12. Since the current and voltage are inphase the waveforms
reach their maximum and minimum values at the same instant.

16
Problems:

A voltage of 240 sin 377t is applied to a 6Ω resistor. Find the

instantaneous current, phase angle, impedance, instantaneous power,
average power and power factor.

Solution:

17
Given:v=240sin377t
Vm=240V
ω=377rad/sec
R = 6Ω

Instantaneouscurrent:
V sint
= m
R
240
= sin377t 6
=40sin377tA
I. Phaseangle:
=0
II. Impedance:
Z=R=6Ω
III. Instantaneouspower:
mm t
2
IV. p=VIsin
=240.40.sin2377t
=9600sin2377t
V. Averagepower:
V I
P= m m=4800watts 2
VI. Power factor:
cosФ=cos0=1

Avoltagee=200sinωt whenappliedtoaresistorisfoundtogiveapower 100

watts. Find the value ofresistance and the equation ofcurrent.

Solution:
Given: e=200sinωt
Vm= 200
P=100w
V I
Averagepower,P= m m
2
200Im
100=
2
Im=1A
Also,Vm=Im.R R
= 200Ω

Instantaneouscurrent,I=Imsinωt=1.sinωtA

A voltage e = 250sinωt when applied to a resistor is found to give a power of

100W.FindthevalueofRandwritetheequationforcurrent.Statewhetherthe value
of R varies when the frequency is changed.

18
 Solution:
Given:e=250sinωt

Vm = 250
P=100W
I. V I
P= mm
2
250Im
100=
2
Im=0.8A
Vm
II. Im=
R
R=312.5Ω
III. I =0.8sinωt

Theresistanceisindependentoffrequency,sothevariation offrequencywill not

affect the resistance of the resistor.

PureInductiveCircuit:

Inthiscircuit,analternatingvoltageisappliedacrossa pureinductor(L)is shown in

Fig. 2.13.

Figure2.13

Lettheinstantaneousvoltageappliedacrosstheinductance(L) be
v=Vmsinωt
Weknowthattheselfinducedemfalwaysopposestheappliedvoltage.
di
V=L
1dt 1Vsintdt
i= vdt=
V L LmV  

19
 =m(−cost)= sint−
m

L L 2
 
 V m
 Im=L 
i=Imsint-
2 
 

Phasorrepresentation:

Figure2.14

Comparingequations,theappliedvoltageandtheresultingcurrentare90 0out- of
phase. Therefore in a purely inductive circuit there is a phase difference of
900ie.,phaseangleis900(Ф=900).Clearly,thecurrentlagsbehindtheapplied
voltage.

Waveform representation:

Figure2.15

Thewaveformforappliedvoltageandtheresultingcurrentandthepower were
shown in Fig.2.15. The current waveform is lagging behind the voltage
waveform by 900.

Impedance(Z):
V
Z= m
Im

= =ωL
L 20
 Z=XL[Impedanceisequaltoinductivereactance]

Power:

(i) Instantaneouspower:
p=vi
  =VmsinωtImsin
t−
 2
 
=VmImsinωt(-cos ωt)
=-VmImsinωtcosωt= -VmImsinθcosθ

(ii) Average power:

SincethewaveforminFig.issymmetrical,theaveragepoweriscalculated for
one cycle.
1
P=−0VmImsincosd
VIsin2
=− 
mm
d
 0 2
 sin2=2sincos  VI

VIcos2 = mm
cos2−cos0
=−mm− 
2 2 0 4
VmIm
= 1−1=0 4
Thus, a pure inductor does not consume any real power. It is also clear from
Fig.thattheaveragedemandofpowerfromthesupplyforacompletecycleis
zero.Itisseenthatpower waveis asine waveof frequencydoublethatofthe voltage
and current waves. The maximum value of instantaneous power
is2 m m.
V I
 

PowerFactor:
Inapureinductorthephaseanglebetweenthecurrentandthevoltageis 90 0(lags).
Ф=900;cosФ=cos900=0
Thusthepowerfactorofapureinductivecircuitiszerolagging.

Problems:

21
 A coil of wire which may be considered as a pure inductance of
0.225H connected to a 120V, 50Hz source. Calculate (i) Inductive
reactance(ii) Current(iii)Maximumpowerdeliveredtotheinductor
(iv) Average power and (v) write the equations of the voltage and
current.

Solution:
Given: L=0.225H
VRMS=V=120V
f=50Hz
I. Inductivereactance,XL=2πfL=2πx50x0.225=70.68Ω
II. Instantaneouscurrent,i=-Imcosωt
V V
I= mandV = m, calculateI andV
m
L RMS
2
m m

Vm=VRMS 2 =169.71V

Vmm 169.71 70.68

I= = =2.4A
L
VmIm
Maximumpower,Pm = =203.74W 2
III. Averagepower,P=0

IV. Instantaneousvoltage,v=Vmsinωt=169.71 sin344tvolts

Instantaneous current, i = -2.4 cosωt A

Apureinductance,L=0.01Htakesacurrent,10cos1500t.Calculate
(i)inductivereactance,(ii)theequation ofvoltageacrossitand(iii)atwhat
frequency will the inductive reactance be equal to 40Ω.

Solution:
Given: L=0.01H
I=10cos1500t
Im = 10A
ω=1500rad/sec
I. Inductivereactance,XL=ωL=1500 x0.01=15Ω
di
II. Thevoltageacrosstheinductor,e=L
dt

22
 d(10cos1500t)
=0.01
dt

III. XL=40Ω;2πfL=40

Find(i)frequency(ii)Maximumvaluesofvoltageand
current(iii)RMSvalueofvoltageandcurrent(iv) Averagevaluesofboth(v) Draw
the phasor diagram (vi) circuit element and its values

Solution:
Given: Vm=200V
Im= 20A
ω=314rad/sec
I. ω=2πf
f=50Hz
II. Vm= 200VandIm=20A
V
III. VRMS = m=141.42V

Im
IRMS = =14.142A
Figure2.16
IV. Forasinusoidal
wave, Average VI. Fromthephasor
value of diagram, it is clear
2Im thatIlagsVbysome
current,I= =12
angle(900). So the
.732A
av
 circuit is purely
inductive.
Averagevalueofvoltage,
V=2Vm=127.32A
av

V. Phasordiagram

23
 PureCapacitiveCircuit:

Inthiscircuit,analternatingvoltageisappliedacrossa purecapacitor(C)is shown in

Fig.2.17

Figure2.17
Lettheinstantaneousvoltageappliedacrosstheinductance(L) be
v=Vmsinωt
LetatanyinstantibethecurrentandQbethechargeontheplates.

So,chargeoncapacitor,Q=C.v
=C.Vmsinωt
dQ
Current,i=
dt
d
i= (CVsint )=ωCVcosωt
m

dt m
 

=CVsin t+

24
 m  
2
 
 Im=CVm

 
i=Imsint+ 2
 

Fromtheaboveequations, wefindthatthereisaphasedifferenceof90 0 between the

voltage and current in a pure capacitor.

Phasorrepresentation:

Figure2.18

Inthephasorrepresentation,thecurrentleadsthevoltagebyanangleof900.

Waveform representation:

Figure2.19
Thecurrentwaveformisaheadofthevoltagewaveformbyanangleof900.

Impedance (Z):
V
Z= m
Im
Vm 1
= =
CVm C
Z=XC[Impedanceisequaltocapacitivereactance]

25
Power:(i)Instantaneous
power:
p=vi  
=VmsinωtImsin t+
 2
 
=VmImsinωt(cos ωt)
=VmImsinθcosθ

(ii) Average power:

SincethewaveforminFig.issymmetrical,theaveragepoweriscalculated for one
cycle.

1
P=VmImsincosd
VI sin2
0

=mm
 0 2
 d
 sin2=2sincos  VI
VIcos2=mm−cos2+cos0
=mm−
2 2 0 4
VmIm
= −1+1=0 4

26
Thus, a pure capacitor does not consume any real power. It is also clear from
Fig.thattheaveragedemandofpowerfromthesupplyforacompletecycleis
zero.Again,itisseenthatpowerwaveisasinewaveoffrequencydoublethat ofthe
voltage and current. The maximum value of instantaneouspower
is2 m m.
V I
 
PowerFactor:
Inapurecapacitor,thephaseanglebetweenthecurrentandthevoltageis 900
(leads).
Ф=900;cosФ=cos900=0
Thusthepowerfactorofapureinductivecircuitiszeroleading.

Problems:

A135μFcapacitorhasa150V,50Hzsupply.Calculate(i)capacitivereactance
(ii)equation ofthe current (iii) Instantaneous power (iv) Average power (v)
RMS current (vi) Maximum power delivered to the capacitor.

Solution:
Given:VRMS=V=150V
C=135μF
1 f=50Hz
I. XC=
=23.58Ω
C
  V
II. i=Isin t+ I=CV andV = m
m  2 m m RMS
 
Vm=150X 2 =212.13V
Im=314X135X10-6X212.13=8.99A
 
i=8.99sin314t+ A
 2
III. p=VmImsinωt(cosωt)=212.13X8.99sin314t.cos314t
sin628t
=66642.6sin314t.cos314t=66642.6
2
 sin2  =2sin  cos 
=33321.3sin628t W
IV. Averagepower,P=0

27
 Im
V. IRMS==6.36A

Avoltageof100Visapplied toacapacitorof12μF.Thecurrentis0.5
A.Whatmustbethefrequencyofsupply

Solution:
Given: VRMS=V=100V
C=12μF I
= 0.5A
I. Find VmandIm
V
V = m
RMS
2
Vm=100X2=141.42V
I
I =m
RMS
2
Im= 0.5X2= 0.707A
II. Im=CVm=2fCVmf
= 66.3Hz

RLSeriesCircuit

LetusconsideracircuitiswhichapureresistanceRandapurlyinductive coil of
inductance L are connected in series as shown in diagram.

Figure2.20

LetV=VmSinωtbetheappliedvoltage. i =
Circuit current at any constant.
I = Effective Value of Circuit Current.
VR=Potentialdifferenceacrossinductor.
VL=Potentialdifferenceacrossinductor. F=
Frequency of applied voltage.

ThesamecurrentI flowsthrough RandLhenceIistakenasreference vector.

28
Voltage across resistor VR= IR in phase with I
VoltagewithinductorVL=IXLleadingIby90°

ThephasordiagramofRLseriescircuitisshown below.

Figure2.21

Atanyconstant,appliedvoltage V
= VR+ VL
V = IR +
jIXLV=I(R+jx
L)
V
=R +jx
I L

=zimpedanceofcircuit Z
= R + j xL
z=

Fromphasordisgram,
x
tan= L
R
x 
=tan−1 L
 
R 

iscalled thephasorangleanditistheanglebetween VandI,itsvaluelies between 0

to 900.

SoimpedenceZ=R+jXL
=Z

ThecurrentandvoltagewaveformofseriesRLCircuitisshown below.

29
 Figure2.22
V =Vmsinωt
I=Imsin(ωt-ф)

ThecurrentIlagsbehindtheappliedvoltageVbyanangleф.

From phasor diagram,

R
Powerfactorcos=
Z
ActualPowerP=VIcosф –Currentcomponentisphasewithvoltage Reactive or
Quadrature Power
Q=VIsinф–Currentcomponentisquadraturewithvoltage Complex or
Apparent Power
S=VI–Productofvoltageandcurrent S =
P + jQ

Problem
AseriesRLCircuithas
2 5 
i(t)=5sin314t+ andV (t) =20sin314t+ 
 3  3
   

Determine (a)theimpedenceofthecircuit
(b) thevaluesofR1Landpower factor
(c) averagepowerofthecircuit

Solution:
2
i (t)=5sin(314t+ )
3
5
V(t)=20 sin(314t+ )
3
2 2180
Phaseangleofcurrentθi= = =120°
3 3
5 5180
Phaseangleofvoltageθ= v = =150°
30
phaseanglebetweenvoltageandcurrentθ=θv~θi
=150–120
θ=300
Powerfactor=cosθ
=cos30

= 0.866(lagging)
V
ImpedenceofthecircuitZ= m
Im
20
=
5
Z=4Ω
R
(i) Butcos=
Z
R
0.866=
4
R=4×0.866 R
= 3.46Ω
Z=
XL=
=
XL= 2Ω
ωL=2Ω
2
L=


L= 6.37×10-3H
(ii) Averagepower=VIcos ф
20
= .5 (0.866)
2 2

31
 =43.3 watts

A10Ω resistor and a 20 mHinductor are connected isseriesacrossa

250V,60Hzsupply.Findtheimpedenceofthecircuit,Voltageacross
theresistor,voltageacrosstheinductor,apparentpower,activepower and
reactive power.

Solution:
R=10Ω
L=20mH=20×10-3H XL
= 2πfL
=2π×60×20×10-
3X = 7.54Ω
L

(i) Z=R+(X)2= =12.5

L
V 250
(ii) I= = =20amps
Z12.5
VR=IR=20×10=200volts
(iii) VL= IXL=20×7.54=150.8 volts
(iv) ApparentpowerS=VI
=250×20
S=5000VA

R
cos= = 10 =0.8(lagging)
Z 12.5

Activepower=VIcosф
=250×20×0.8
P=4000Watts
sin= = =0.6
Reactive Power Q = VI sin ф
= 250×20×0.6
Q=3000KVAR

2.18)Twoimpedances(5+j7)Ωand(10-j7)Ωareconnectedinseriesacross a 200V
supply. Calculate the current, power factor and power.

Solution:
Z1 = 5 + j7
Z2=10-j7
V=200volts
ZTotal=Z1+Z2
=5+j7+10 –j7
ZTotal=15<0.
32
ф=0.

TakingVasreferenve,
V=200<0°.Volts
V 2000
(i) I = = =13.330amps
Z 150
(ii) ф=0
PF=cosф=cos0 =1
(iii) Power=VIcosф
=200×13.33×1
Power=2666watts

RCSeriesCircuit

Letusconsiderthecircuitshown indiagraminwhichapureresistanceRand a pure

capacitance C are connected in series.

Figure3.24

Let
V=Vmsinωtbetheappliedvoltage. I =
Circuit current of any instant
I=Effectivevalueofcircuit current
VR = Potential Difference across Resistor
Vc=PotentialDifferenceacrossCapacitor f
= Frequency of applied voltage
The same Current I flows through R and C
Voltage across R = VR = IR in phase with I
VoltageacrossC=Vc=IXclaggingIby900 Applied
voltage V = IR– jIXc
=I(R–jxc)
V
=R−jX =ZI
c

Z– Impedenceofcircuit
Z=
PhasorDiagramofRCseriescircuitis,
33
 Figure3.25
FromTriangle
X 1/c
tan= c= = 1
R R cR
=tan−1
1

cR 
фiscalledPhaseangleanditisanglebetweenVandI.Itsvalueliesbetween 0 and –
90o.
ThecurrentandvoltagewaveformofseriesRCCircuitis,

Figure3.26

V =Vmsinωt
I=Imsin(ωt–ф)
ThecurrentIleadstheappliedvoltageVbyanangleф.
FromPhasorDiagram,
R
Power factor cos=
Z
ActualorrealpowerP=VIcosф
ReactiveorQuardraturepowerQ=VIsinф
Complex or Apparent Power S = P + jQ
34
PROBLEMS

3.20 A capacitor having a capacitarce of 10 μF is connected in series with a

non-inductiveresistorof120Ωacross100V,50HZcalculatethecurrent,power and
the Phase Difference between current and supply voltage.
(Non-inductiveResistormeansaPureresistor)

Solution:
C=10μF
R = 120Ω
V=100V
F = 50Hz
1 1
X= =
c
2fc2501010−6

=318
Z=
=340

(a) I=

100
=
340
= 0.294amps
X 
PhaseDifference=tan−1 c
(b)  
R 

35
 318
=tan−1
120
=69.3(Leading)
cos=cos(69.3)
= 0.353(Leading)
Power=V Icos
=1000.2940.353
=10.38Watts

The Resistor R in series with capacitance C is connected to a 50HZ,

240V supply. Find the value of C so that R absorbs 300 watts at 100
volts. Find also the maximum charge and the maximum stored energy
in capacitance.

Solution:
V=240volt F
= 50Hz

PowerabsorbedbyR=300watts Voltage
across R = 100 volts

V2=V2+V
R
2

VC=

=
VC=218.2volts

ForResistor,Power absorbed=300volts

I 2R=VI=300
R
300 300
I= = =3amps
VR 100
VC
X= (Applyohm'slawfor C)
C
I
218.2
= =72.733
1
=72.73
2fc C=

36
 1
25072.73
=43.7710−6
F

C =43.77F

Maximum charge = Qm = C × maximum

VcMaximumstaredenergy=1/2(C×maximumV 2) c
MaximumVc=2×RmsvalueofVc
= 2 ×218.2=308.6volts

Now

Maximumcharge=Qm=43.77x10-6x308.6
=0.0135Coulomb
Maximum energy stored
=½(43.77x10-6)(308.6)2
=2.08joules.

ACapacitorandResistorareconnectedinseriestoan A.C.supplyof60volts, 50HZ.

The current is 2A and the power dissipated in the Resistor is 80 watts.
Calculate (a) the impedance (b) Resistance (c) capacitance (d) Power factor.

37
Solution
V=60volts
F = 50
HzI=2amp
s

PowerDissipated=P=80 watts
V 60
(a) Z = = =30
I 2

(b) AsP=I2R
P 80
R= =2
I 4
=20
(c) Since,Z2=R2+X2 c

X c=
= =22.36
1
=22.36
2fc
c= 1

2f(22.36)
1
=
250 22.36
=142×10-6F C
= 142 µF
R
(or)Powerfactor=cos=
Z
20
==
30
=0.67(Leading)

It is capacitive circuit.

A metal filament lamp, Rated at 750watts, 100V is to be connected in

series with a capacitor across a 230V, 60Hz supply. Calculate (i) The
capacitance required (ii) The power factor

35
 Solution

RatingofthemetalfilamentW=750watts
VR=100volts
W=I2R= VRI
W 750
I= = =7.5amps
VR100

ItislikeRCSeriesCircuit

So
V2=V2+V
R
2
C

V C=

=
=207volts

ApplyingOhm’sLawforC
V
X= C =207
C
I 7.5
=27.6
1
=27.6
2fc
1 1
c= =
2f27.6 26027.6
= 96.19F
R
Powerfactor=cos=
Z
V 230
Z = = =30.7
I 7.5
W
R= =750 2
I2 (7.5)
=13.33
R
Powerfactor=cos=
Z
13.33
cos=
30.7

36
Solution
=0.434(Leading)

RLCseriescircuit

Letv= RMSvalueofthevoltageappliedtoseries combination I =

RMS value of the current flowing
VR=voltageacrossR
VL = voltageacross L
VC=voltageacrossC

Figure3.28

Acircuitconsisting ofpureR,pureLandpureCconnectedinseriesis known as

RLC series circuit.

Phasordiagram
TakeIasreference
VR= I × R
VL=I×XLV
C=I×XC

AssumeXL>XCT

hen VL>VC

Figure3.29

Theabovefigureshowsthephasordiagramforthecombinedcircuit. From the

voltage triangle
37
 V2=V2+(V−V
R C)
2
L

=IR +(IX−IX)
2 2
L C

=I2+[R2+(X−X)2]
L C

V=I
V
Z=
X=(XL−XC)
Z=

ThreecasesofZ

Case1 IfXL>XC
ThecircuitbehaveslikeRLcircuit.Currentlagsbehindvoltage.Sopower factor is
lagging.

Case2 IfXL<XC
ThecircuitbehaveslikeRCcircuitcurrentleadsappliedvoltagepower factor is
leading.

Case 3 WhenXL=XC,thecircuitbehaveslikepureresistance.
Current is in phase with the applied voltage power factor is unity.
Impedancetriangle

Figure3.30

ForXL>XC ForXL>XC.

1. Ifappliedvoltage
V=Vmsinωtandфisphaseanglethen‘i’isgivenby
1) i=Imsin(ωt-θ),forXL<XC
2) i=Imsin(ωt+θ),forXL>XC
38
 3) i=ImsinωtforXL=XC

2. ImpedanceforRLCseriescircuitincomplexform(or)rectangular
form is given by
Z=R+j (XL-XC)

Problems

In a RLC series circuit, the applied voltage is 5V. Drops across the
resistance and inductance are 3V and 1V respectively. Calculate the
voltage across the capacitor. Draw the phaser diagram.
V2=5V2 V2R=3V VL= 1V
V= V+(V–V)
R L C
(VL–VC)2=V2–V2 R
=25–9=16
VL–VC=±4
VC=VL±4=1+4
VC= 5V

Acoilofresistance10Ωandininductanceof0.1Hisconnectedin series with

a capacitance of150μF across a 200v, 50HZ supply.
Calculate

a) theinductivereactanceofthecoil.
b) thecapacitivereactance
c) thereactance
d) current
e) powerfactor
R = 10Ω
L=0.1H
C=150μF =150x10-6F
V=200V f=50Hz
a) XL= 2πfL= 2π(50)0.1
=31.4Ω
b) X=1 =
1
C 2fc 2(50)(15010−6)

=21.2Ω
c) thereactanceX=XL-XC
=31.4– 21.2
=10.2Ω(Inductive)
d) Z=

= 10 +(10.2)
2 2

=14.28(Inductive)
39
 100
e) P.F=cos=R=
14.28
=0.7(lagging)(IlagsbehindV)

ParallelACcircuit

Whentheimpedanceandconnectedinparallelandthecombinationisexcited by
AC source it is called parallel AC circuit.
Considertheparallelcircuitshowninfigure.
1 1
XC1=2 =
fc c
1 1

XC2=2fL2=L2

ImpedanceZ1=
 
=t an−1 XC1
1  
 R1
Z2 =
X 
2=tan−1 L2
R2
Conductance = g
Susceptance = b
Admittance = y

Branch1
Conductanceg= R1
1 2
Z1
b=XC1(positive)
1 Z2
1

Y1 =
Branch2

R2
g2= 2
Z2
X (Negative)
b= C2
2 2

Z2

40
 Y2=
2 2

Total conductance
G=g1+g2T
otal Suceptance B = b1– b2
TotaladmittanceY=
Branch current I1=VY1
I2=VY2I
=VY
 B
Phaseangle=tan−1 lagifB-negative
 G
 

G
Powerfactorcos=
Y
Problems:

Twoimpedancesofparallelcircuitcanberepresentedby(20+j15)and (10 –
j60) Ω. If the supply frequency is 50 Hz, find the resistance,
inductance or capacitance of eachcircuit.

Z1 =20+j15Ω Z2
= 10 – j60 Ω F
= 50 Hz
Z1 = R1 +
jXLZ2=R2–
jXC

Jtermpositiveforininductive
Jtermnegativefor capacitive.
Forcircuit1, R1= 20Ω
X1=XL=2πfL=2π(50)(L) XL =
15
2π (50)L=15
15
L=
2(50)
L=48 mH

Forcircuit2
Z2=10–j60
R2= 10
X2=XC=60Ω
1
ie,
1
2fC C=

41
=60

42
 2(50)60
C=53μF.

2.3.27 Two circuits, the impedances of which are Z 1 = (10 + j15) Ω and Z2= (6
– j8) Ω are connected in parallel. If the total current supplied is 15A. What is
the power taken by each branch.

Z1=(10+j15)=18.0356.3
Z2=(6−j8)=10−53.13
I=15 A
Z2
I=I
1 (Currentdividerrule)
Z1+Z2
150010−53.130
=
16+j7
(Z1+Z2=10+j15+6–j8)
150−53.130
I 1=
17.4623.63
I1=8.6−76.76A

ByKCLI2=I –I1
=150−8.6−76.76
=15–(1.97–j8.37)
=15.5– 32.7A

43
 Powertakenbybranch1
=powerdissipatedinresistanceofbranch 1
2 2
=I1R1=(8.6)10
=739.6 watts

Powertakenbybranch2
2
=I2 R2
=(15.5)26
=1442watts

3.28A100Ωresistance and0.6Hinductanceareconnectedin parallelacrossa 230v

50 Hz supply. Find the line current, impedance, power dissipated and
parameter of the equivalent series circuit.
Z1=R=100Ω
Z2=jXL= j2πfL
=j(2π×50×0.6)
=j188.5Ω
=188.590
ZT=Z1*Z2

Z1Z2 1000188.590
= =
Z1+Z2 100+j188.5

1885090
=
213.462
=88.3328
=78+j41.46R+jXL

Total impedance
ZT=88.33R=78Ω,XL
=41.46Ω
XL=2πfLeq
41.46=2π×50×Leq
41.46
Leq=
250
Leq=132mH
=30–j40+24+j32
=54– j8
=54.6–8.43A

Comparing‘V’and‘IT’currentITlagvoltage‘V’
ф = 8.43° lag
Powerfactor=cosф=cos8.43
44
=0.99lag

45
 TruePower=W=VIcos
=200×54.6×cos8.43
= 10802watts
=10.802 KW
ApparentPower=V I
=200×54.6
= 10920VA=10.920KVA

=3.663 8.43
= 3.623+j0.54
=R+j XL
R=3.623Ω XL=0.54Ω

(or)
ZTotal=Z1*Z 2

Z1Z2 (2.4+j3.2)(3−j4)
= =
Z1+Z2 2.4+j3.2+3−j4

453.135−53.13
=
5.46−8.43
2000
=
5.46−8.43
=3.6638.43
=3.623+j 0.54Ω
ReactivePower=VIsin
= 200×54.6×sin8.43
= 1601VAR
= 1.601 KVAR

LetZtotal=Totalimpedance
V 20000
Z Total= =
Itotal 54.6−8.43

46
THREEPHASEA.C.CIRCUITS
ThreePhaseConnection

We have seen above only about single phase systems. Generally generation
transmission and distribution of electrical energy are of three phase in nature.
Three phase system is a very common poly phase system. It could be viewed
combination of three single phase system with a phase difference of 120 °
between every pair. Generation, transmission and distribution of three phase
power is cheaper. Three phase system is more efficient compared to single
phase system. Uniform torque production occurs in three phase system where
as pulsating torque is produced in the case of single phase system. Because of
these advantages the overall generation, transmission and distribution of
electrical power is usually of three phase.
There are two possible connections in 3-phase system. One is star
connection and the other one is delta or mesh connection. Each type of
connection is governed by characteristics equations relating the currents and
the voltages.

StarConnection

Here three similar ends of the three phase coils are joined together to form a
common point. Such a point is called star point or the neutral point. The free
endsofthethreephasecoilswillbeoperatingatspecificpotentialwithrespect to the
zero potential of star point.
It may also be noted that wires are drawn from the three free ends for
connectingloads.Weactuallyhaveherethreephasefourwiresystemandthree
phase three wire system.

Analysis
Letusanalyzetherelationshipbetweencurrentsandvoltages.Inathreephase
circuit,thevoltageacrosstheindividualcoilisknownasphasevoltageandthe
voltage between two lines is called line voltage. Similarlythe current flowing
throughthecoiliscalledphasecurrentandthecurrentflowingthrough theline is
called line current.

NotationsDefined
ER, EY, EB :PhasevoltagesofR,YandBphases.
IR,IY,IB :Phase currents
VRY,VYB,VBR :Linevoltages
IL1,IL2,IL3 :Linecurrents

47
 Figure3.32

A balanced system is one in which the currents in all phases are equal in
magnitude and are displaced from one another by equal angles. Also the
voltages in all the phases are equal in magnitude and are displaced from one
another by equal angles. Thus,

ER=EY=EB=EP VRY=VYB=VBR=VL
IR=IY=IB=IP IL1=IL2=IL3=IL

Figure3.33

CurrentRelationship:
ApplyKirchhoff’scurrentlawatnodesR1,Y1,B1We get
IR=ILI;IY=IL1;IB=IL3

Thismeansthatinabalancedstarconnectedsystem,phasecurrentequalsthe line
current
IP=IL
Phasecurrent= Linecurrent

Voltagerelationship:

Let usapplyKirchhoff’s voltagelawtotheloop consistingofvoltagesER;VRyand Ey.

–→ ––→ –→
ER −EY=VRY
Usinglawofparallelogram
–→

48
 VRY=VRY=

=E2+E2+2EEcos60==E
P P PP P

Similarly, ––→ ––→ –→ ––→ –→ –→

EY−EB=VYBandEB−ER=VBR
VRY=EP andVBR=EP

HenceVL= 3 EP

LineVoltage= phasevoltage

Powerrelationship:
Letcosфbethepowerfactor ofthesystem.

Powerconsumed in one phase=EPlPcosф Power

V 
consumedinthreephase=3 L Icos
 
=3VLlLcoswatts
Reactivepowerinonephase=EPlPsin

TotalReactivepower=3EPlPsin

49
 ApparentPower=3EPlP

DeltaConnection:

The dissimilar ends of the three phase coils are connected together to form a
mesh.Wiresaredrawnfromeachjunctionforconnectingload.Wecanconnect only
three phase loads as there is no fourth wire available.

Figure3.33

Let us analyze the relationship between currents and voltages. The system is
balanced one. Notation used in the star connection are used here.

ER, EY, EB : PhasevoltagesofR,YandBphases. IR,

lY, IB : Phase currents
VRY,VYB,VBR:Linevoltages
IL1,IL2,IL3: Linecurrents

Voltagerelationship:
LetusapplyKirchhoff’svoltagelawtotheloopconsistingofvoltagesER,VRY

We Have ER=VRY
Similarly EY=VYBandEB=VBR

Thus EP=VL
Phasevoltage=linevoltage

CurrentRelationship:
ApplyKirchhoff’scurrentlawatnodeA(i.e.)R1,B2Weget
–→ –→ →
IR−IB=I1,1
Referringtothephasordiagramandapplyingthelawofparallelogram, We get
IL1=
=

50
Similarly,
–→ –→ → –→ –→ →
IY−IR=I1,2andIB−IY=I1,3

HenceIL2=IP andIL3=IP

ThusLinecurrent= Phasecurrent
IL=IP

Powerrelationship:
Letcosф bethepowerfactorofthesystem.

Powerconsumedinonephase=EPlPcos
I 
Powerconsumedinthreephase=3V L cos
 
=3VLILcoswatts

Reactivepowerinonephase=EpIpsin

TotalReactivepower= 3EpIpcos
= 3VLILsinVAR

Apparentpowerperphase=EpIp

TotalApparentPower=3EpIp= VLILvolt

MEASUREMENTOFPOWERINTHREEPHASE CIRCUITS:
A three phase circuit supplied from a balanced three phase voltage may have
balanced load or unbalanced load. The load in general can be identified as a
complex impedance. Hence the circuit will be unbalanced when the load
impedance in all the phase are not of same value. As a result, the current
flowing in the lines will have unequal values. These line currents will have
equal values when the load connected to the three phases have equal values.
Thetwocasesmentionedabovecanexistwhentheloadisconnectedinstaror delta.
The three phase power can be measured by using three watt maters in
eachphases.Thealgebraicsumofthereadinggivesthetotalthreephasepower

51
consumed.Howeverthreephasepowercanalsomeasuredusingtwowatt meter.

CaseIStarConnectedload
In this section we analyse the measurement of three phase power using two
wattmeter,whentheloadisstarconnected.Thefollowingassumptionmade:

(I) Thethreephasesupplyto whichtheloadinconnectedisbalanced.

(II) ThephasesequenceisR,Y, B.
(III) Theloadisbalanced.
(IV) TheloadisR-Linnature.

Diagram 4

Figure3.35
ForWattmeter1 → →
Currentmeasured=L1=R
I–→ I
Voltagemeasured=VRY
Phaseanglebetweenthem=30+
Powermeasured=P1=VRYIRcos(30+)

ForWattmeter2 → →
Current measured= =L3 B
I–→ I
Voltagemeasured=VBY
Phaseanglebetweenthem=30−
Powermeasured=P1=VBYIBcos(30−)
=VLILcos(30−)

Now,P1+P2=VLILcos(30+)+VLILcos(30−)
=VLIL[cos30cos+sin30sin+cos30cos−sin30sin]
3 cos
=VLIL2
2

=3VLILcos=Totalpowerinathreephasecircuit

52
 P2−P1=VLIL[cos(30 −)−cos(30 +)]
=VLIL2sin30sin
= VLILsin

P2−P1 VLILsin tan

= =
P2 +P1 3VLILcos 3

tan  = 3P2−P1
P2+P1
tan  = 3 (P 2−P1/P2+P1)
 −1 P2−P1
Powerfactor=cos tan 3P2+P1

 

Thus, two wattmeters connected appropriately in a three phase circuit can

measure the total power consumed in the circuit.

CaseIIDeltaConnectedload
In this section we analyse the measurement of three phase power using two
wattmeter, power when the load is star connected. The following assumption
made:

(I) Thethreephasesupplyto whichtheloadinconnectedisbalanced.

(II) ThephasesequenceisR,Y, B.
(III) Theloadisbalanced.
(IV) TheloadisR-Linnature.

Figure3.36
For Wattmeter1 → → →
Currentmeasured=I1,1=IR−IB
–→ –→
Voltagemeasured=VRY=RE
Phaseanglebetweenthem=30+
Powermeasured=P1=VRYIL1cos(30+)

53
 =VLILcos(30+)

ForWattmeter2 → → →
Currentmeasured=I1,3=IB −IY
–→ –→
Voltagemeasured=VBY=−EYP
haseanglebetweenthem = 30 −
Powermeasured=P1=VBYI1,3cos(30−)
=VLILcos(30−)
Now,P1+P2=VLILcos(30+)+VLILcos(30−)
=VLIL[cos30cos−sin30sin+cos30cos−sin30sin]
3 cos
=VLIL2
2

=3VLILcos=Totalpowerinathreephasecircuit P2

−P1=VLIL[cos(30 −) − cos(30 +)]

=VLIL2sin30sin
= VLILsin

Tan=3(P2−P1/P2+P1)
 −1
P2−P1
Powerfactor=costan 3P2+P1

 

Problems3.30
Three similar coils of Resistance of 10Ω and inductance 0.15 Henry are
connected in star across a 3Φ, 440V, 50Hz supply. Find the line and phase
valuesofcurrent.AlsofindtheabovevalueswhentheyareconnectedinDelta.

Solution:
GivenData

VL=440V,Rph=10,Lph= 0.15H,f=50Hz

XLph= 2fLph= 2 500.15= 47.12

Zph= R +X =

=48.17

54
InstarConnection
IL=Iph V L= 3Vph

VL440
Vph= = =230.95Volt
3 3

Vph =230.95 =4.794A

Iph =
Zph 48.17

IL=Iph=4.794A
Activepower= 3VphIphcos
Rph
cos= =
Zph 0.2075

Activepower=3*230.95*4.794*0.2075
=689.54W
Reactivepower=3VphIphsin
sin = 1−cos2= 0.9782
Reactivepower =3*230.95*4.794*0.9782
=3249.23VAR
Apparentpower=3VphI ph=3*230.95* 4.794
=3321.52V

IfitisDeltaconnectedcoils, then
VL=Vph&IL= 3 Iph

VL=Vph=440V

Vph440
I = = 9.134A
ph
Zph48.17

IL=3Iph=3*9.134=15.82A

Activepower=3VphIphcos
= 3*440*9.134*0.2075
=2501.80watt

55
 Reacivepower=3VphIphsin
=3*440*9.134*0.9782
Apparentpower=3VphIph=3*440*9.134
=12056.88VA
Problem3.31
Twowattmetersconnectedtomeasurethe3Φpowerindicate1000wattsand 500
watts respectively. Calculate the power factor of the ckt.

Solution:
Givendata
p1=500watts,p2=1000watts,
p1+p2=1000+500=1500watts
p2−p1=1000 − 500 = 500 watts
p1=VL ILcos(30 +)
p2=VLILcos(30−)
p1+p2= 3VL IL cos

p−p=3* (p2−p1)= 3 *500

2 1

(p1+p2) 1500
=0.5773
=29.99

Power factor cos Φ = 0.866

Problem3.32
Abalancedstarconnectedloadof(3+j4)Ωimpedanceisconnectedto400V, three
phase supply. What is the real power consumed bythe load?

Solution:
Givendata
VL=400volt
Impedence/phase=Zph=3+j4 =553
Instarconnection
IL=I ph&VL=3Vph
V 400
Vph = L= =231volt 3
3
V 231
CurrentineachIph =Z ph=
ph 553

56
 =46.02−53A
LinecurrentIL=46.02A
Totalpowerconsumedintheload= 3VLILcos
= 3*400*46.02*cos(−53)
=19188watt

PARTA–QUESTIONS
1. DefineFormfactorandPeakfactor
2. Whatismeantbyaveragevalue?
3. Givetherelationbetweenlinevoltageandphasevoltage,line
current and phase current for star and deltaconnection.
4. Whataretheadvantagesofpolyphasesystem ?
5. Definepowerfactor?
6. Whatisphasesequence?
7. Defineinductanceandwriteitsunit.
8. Whatismeantbybalancedsystem?
9. Writedowntheexpressionforpowerfactorintwowattmeter
method.

PARTB–QUESTIONS
1. Explain with neat figures the power measurement in three phase
circuits using two-wattmeter method.
2. AgivenloadconsistingofaresistorR&acapacitor C,takesapower of
4800W from 200V, 60HZ supply mains, Given that the voltage drop
across the resistor is 120V, Calculate the (a) impedance
(b)current(c)powerfactor(d)resistance(e)capacitance.Writedown the
equations for the current and voltage.
3. A coil of 10 ohms and inductance of 0.1H in series with a 150µF
capacitor across 200V,250HZ supply. Calculate (i) inductive
reactance, capacitive reactance and impedance of the circuit (ii)
current (iii)power factor(iv)voltage across the coil and capacitor
respectively.
4. An impedance z1= (2.4+j3.2) ohms is in parallel with another
impedancez2=(3-j4)ohms.Thecombinationisgivenasupplyof200
V.Calculate(i)totalimpedance(ii)individual&totalcurrents
(iii)powerfactor(iv)powerinthecircuit.
5. A balanced three phase load consists of 6 ohms resistor & 8 ohms
reactor(inductive)ineachphase.Thesupplyis230V,3phases,50HZ. Find
(a) phase current (b) line current (c) total power. Assume the load to
be connected in star & delta.
6. A 3phase, 4 wire 208 V, ABC system supplies a star connected load
inwhichZA=10∟0,ZB=15∟30,ZC=10∟-30.Findtheline currents,
57
 theneutralcurrentandtheloadpower.
7. A coil having R = 10 and L = 0.2H is connected to a 100V, 50 Hz
supply.Calculate(i)theimpedanceofthecoil(ii)thecurrent(iii)the phase
difference between the current and voltageand (iv) thepower.
8. Three similar coils of resistance of 10 and inductance 0.15H are
connected in star across a 3phase440V, 50 Hz supply. Find theline

andphasevaluesofcurrent. Alsofindtheabovevalueswhentheyare
connected in delta.
9. Eachphaseofadeltaconnectedloadcomprisesaresistor ofOhmand a
capacitor of F in series. Calculate the line current for a 3 - 
voltagesof400Vat50Hz.Alsoevaluatethepowerfactorandthetotal 3 - 
power absorbed by the load.

References:
1. MittleB.N.&AravindMittle,BasicElectricalEngineering,2nd
Edition,TataMcGrawHill,2011.
2. TherajaB.L.,FundamentalsofElectricalEngineeringand
Electronics, 1st Edition, S.Chand & Co., 2009.
3. SmarajitGhosh,FundamentalsofElectricalandElectronics
Engineering, 2ndEdition, PHI Learning Private Ltd, 2010.

58
 SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
DEPARTMENTOFELECTRICALANDELECTRONICSENGINEERING

UNIT3-INTRODUCTIONTOMACHINES
SEEA1101-BASICELECTRICALANDELECTRONICSENGINEERING

1
 III.INTRODUCTIONTOMACHINES
ConstructionandPrincipleofOperationofDCGenerators- DCMotors-SinglePhase Transformer
-SinglePhaseInductionMotors-StepperMotor.

DCGenerator
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct current
electricity. This energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced
emf. This article outlines basic construction and working of a DC generator.

Constructionof ADC Machine:

ADCgeneratorcanbeusedasaDCmotorwithoutanyconstructionalchangesandviceversaisalso possible.
Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadlytermed as a DC machine. These basic
constructionaldetailsarealsovalidfortheconstructionofaDCmotor.Hence,let'scallthispointas
construction of a DC machine instead of just 'construction of a dc generator'.

The above figure shows the constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DCmachine
consists two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are described
below.

Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel. It not
onlyprovidesmechanicalstrengthtothewholeassemblybutalsocarriesthemagneticfluxproduced by the
field winding.

2
Polesandpoleshoes:Polesarejoinedtotheyokewiththehelpofboltsorwelding.Theycarryfield winding
and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i) they support field coils and
(ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on each
pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they form
alternate North and South poles.

Armaturecore(rotor)
Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of the machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots to
carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing
eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes.
Armature is keyed to the shaft.
Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots. The
armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core. Armature
winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap
orwavewindingsaregenerallyused.Adoublelayerwindingmeansthateacharmatureslotwillcarry two
different coils.
Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a
commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the
current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in
providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of a set of copper segments
which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is equal to the number of armature
coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator is keyed to the shaft.
Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator segments and slide on
the segments when the commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the
current.

3
 Commutator

WorkingPrincipleofADC Generator
According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is placed in a
varying magnetic field (OR aconductoris moved in amagneticfield),an emf(electromotive force)
getsinducedintheconductor.Themagnitudeofinducedemfcanbecalculatedfromtheemfequation of dc
generator. If the conductor is provided with the closed path, the induced current will circulate
within the path. In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field and the armature
conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the
armature conductors. The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
NeedofaSplitringcommutator:

According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced current changes whenever the
direction of motion of the conductor changes. Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a
conductorattheleftismovingupward.Whenthearmaturecompletesahalfrotation,thedirectionof motion
ofthat particular conductorwill be reversed to downward. Hence, thedirection of current in
everyarmatureconductorwillbealternating.Ifyoulookattheabovefigure,youwillknowhowthe direction
of the induced current is alternating in an armature conductor. But with a split ring commutator,
connections of the armature conductors also gets reversed when the current reversal occurs. And
therefore, we get unidirectional current at the terminals.

4
EMFequationof DCGenerator
Weknowthattheworkingprincipleofdcgenerator,thatwhenconductorsbegintocutthemagnetic lines of
force and therefore, the e.m.f. induces in the conductors according to 'Faraday's Law of
Electromagnetic Induction'. The value of induced e.m.f. depends upon the lengths of the conductor,
themagneticfieldstrength,andthespeedatwhichthecoilrotates.Letusseetheequationforinduced e.m.f.

Let,
φ= Fluxperpolein Weber.
Z=Totalnumber ofarmature conductors.
N=Armaturerotationinrevolutionperminute(r.p.m). P =
Number of poles.
A=Numberof parallelpaths in armature.
E = e.m.f induced in any parallel path or generated e.m.f.
AccordingtoFaraday'slawofElectromagneticinduction.
Average e.m.f generated per conductors,

FluxcutperConductorsinone revolution,

dφ=φP wb

Numberofrevolutionsperminute,
= N / 60
Time taken for one revolution,
dt=60/ Nsec

E.m.fgeneratedperconductor,

Therefore,thetotalemf Egeneratedbetweenthe terminalsifgiven as,

5
 E=Average e.m.f generatedper conductor*Numberofconductorineachparallel path

TypesofDCGenerators
The DC generator converts mechanical power into electrical power. The magnetic flux in a DC
machine is produced by the field coils carry current. The circulating current in the field windings
produces a magnetic flux, and the phenomenon is known as Excitation.
DCGeneratoris classifiedaccordingto themethodsof theirfield excitation.

• Byexcitation,theDCGeneratorsareclassifiedasSeparatelyexcitedDCGeneratorsandSelf-
excited DC Generators. There is also Permanent magnet type DC generators.
• Theself-excited DC Generators arefurther classified as Shunt wound DCgenerators; Series
wound DC generators and Compound wound DC generators.
• The Compound Wound DC generators are further divided as long shunt-wound DC
generators, and short shunt-wound DC generators.
• The field pole of the DC generator is stationary, and the armature conductor rotates. The
voltage generated in the armature conductor is of alternating nature, and this voltage is
converted into the direct voltage at the brushes with the help of the commutator.
SeparatelyExcitedDC Generator
A DC generator whose field winding or coil is energised by a separate or external DC source is
calledaseparatelyexcitedDCGenerator.Thefluxproducedbythepolesdependsuponthefield current
with the unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles. i.e. flux is directly proportional to
the field current. But in the saturated region, the flux remains constant.
Thefigureof self-excitedDCGenerator isshownbelow:

6
Here,

Ia=ILwhereIaisthearmaturecurrentand IListhelinecurrent. Terminal

voltage is given as:

If thecontactbrushdropisknown, thentheequation(1)iswritten as:

Thepower developed isgivenbytheequation shown below:

7
 SelfExcitedDC Generator
Self-excitedDCGeneratorisadevice,inwhichthecurrenttothefieldwindingissuppliedbythe
generatoritself.Inself-excitedDCgenerator,thefieldcoilsmaybeconnectedinparallelwiththe armature
in the series, or it may be connected partly in series and partly in parallel with the armature
windings.
Theself-excitedDCGeneratorisfurtherclassifiedas
a) ShuntWoundGenerator
Inashunt-woundgenerator,thefieldwindingisconnectedacrossthearmaturewindingforminga
parallelorshuntcircuit.Therefore,thefullterminalvoltageisappliedacrossit.Averysmallfield current
Ish, flows through it because this winding has many turns of fine wire having very high resistance
Rsh of the order of 100 ohms.
Theconnectiondiagramofshunt-wound generatorisshown below:

Theshuntfieldcurrentisgiven as:

WhereRshis theshuntfield windingresistance.

8
Thecurrentfield Ishispracticallyconstantatallloads.Therefore,theDCshuntmachineis considered
to be a constant flux machine.

Armaturecurrentisgivenas:

Terminalvoltageisgivenbythe equationshownbelow:

Ifthebrushcontactdrop isincluded,theequationoftheterminalvoltage becomes

b) SeriesWound Generator
Aseries-woundgeneratorthefieldcoilsareconnectedinserieswiththearmaturewinding.The series field
winding carries the armature current.
The series field winding consists of a few turns of wire of thick wire of larger cross-sectional area
andhavinglowresistanceusuallyoftheorderoflessthan1ohmbecausethearmaturecurrenthasa very large
value.
Itsconvectionaldiagramisshownbelow:

Seriesfieldcurrentis givenas:

9
Rseisknownastheseriesfieldwindingresistance.

Terminal voltage is given as:

Ifthebrushcontactdrop isincluded,theterminalvoltageequationiswrittenas:

The flux developed by the series field winding is directly proportional to the current flowing
throughit.Butitisonlytruebeforemagneticsaturationafterthesaturation fluxbecomesconstant even if
the current flowing through it is increased.

c) CompoundWound Generator

In a compound-wound generator, there are two field windings. One is connected in series, and
anotherisconnectedinparallelwiththearmaturewindings.Therearetwotypesofcompound- wound
generator.

(i) Longshunt compound-woundgenerator

(ii) Shortshunt compound-wound generator

(i) LongShuntCompoundWound Generator

Inalongshunt-woundgenerator,theshuntfieldwindingisparallelwithbotharmatureandseries field
winding. The connection diagram of the long shunt-wound generator is shown below:

10
Theshuntfieldcurrentisgiven as:

Seriesfieldcurrentis givenas:

Terminalvoltageis givenas:

Ifthebrushcontactdropisincluded,theterminalvoltage equationiswrittenas:

11
(ii) ShortShuntCompoundWound Generator

InaShortShuntCompoundWoundGenerator,theshuntfieldwindingisconnectedinparallelwith the
armature winding only. The connection diagram of a short shunt-wound generator is shown below.

Seriesfieldcurrentis givenas:

Theshuntfieldcurrentisgiven as:

Terminalvoltageis givenas:

12
Ifthebrushcontactdrop isincluded,theterminalvoltageequationiswrittenas:

InthistypeofDCgenerator,thefieldisproduced bytheshuntaswellas serieswinding.Theshunt

fieldisstrongerthantheseriesfield.Ifthemagneticfluxproducedbytheserieswindingassiststhe flux
produced by the shunt field winding, the generator is said to be Cumulatively Compound Wound
generator.

Iftheseriesfieldfluxopposestheshuntfieldflux,thegeneratorissaidtobeDifferentially
Compounded.

WorkingPrincipleofADC Motor

A motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The
principle of working of a DC motor is that "whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force". The direction of this force is given by Fleming's
left hand rule and it's magnitude is given byF = BIL. Where, B = magnetic flux density, I = current
and L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.

Fleming'slefthandrule: Ifwestretchthefirstfinger,second fingerandthumbofourlefthandtobe

perpendicular to each other AND direction of magnetic field is represented by the first finger,
directionofthecurrentisrepresentedbysecondfingerthenthethumbrepresentsthedirectionofthe force
experienced by the current carrying conductor.

BackEMF

According to fundamental laws of nature, no energy conversion is possible until there is something
to oppose the conversion. In case of generators this opposition is provided by magnetic drag, but in
case of dc motors there is back emf.

When the armature of the motor is rotating, the conductors are also cutting the magnetic flux lines
and hence according tothe Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, an emf induces in the
armature conductors. The direction of this induced emf is such that it opposes the armature current
(Ia). The circuit diagram below illustrates the direction of the back emf and armature current.
Magnitude of Back emf can be given by the emf equation of DC generator.

13
 Significanceof BackEmf:

Magnitudeofbackemfisdirectlyproportionaltospeedofthemotor.Considertheloadonadcmotor is
suddenly reduced. In this case, required torque will be small as compared to the current torque.
Speed of the motor will start increasing due to the excess torque. Hence, being proportional to the
speed,magnitudeofthebackemfwillalsoincrease.Withincreasingbackemfarmaturecurrentwill start
decreasing. Torque being proportional to the armature current, it will also decrease until it becomes
sufficient for the load. Thus, speed of the motor will regulate.

Ontheotherhand,ifadcmotorissuddenlyloaded,theloadwillcausedecreaseinthespeed.Dueto decrease
in speed, back emf will also decrease allowing more armature current. Increased armature current
will increase the torque to satisfy the load requirement. Hence, presence of the back emf makes a dc
motor ‘self-regulating’.

TypesofDCMotor

A Direct Current Motor, DC is named according to the connection of the field winding with the
armature. Mainlythere aretwo types of DC Motors. Oneis SeparatelyExcited DC Motor and other is
Self-excited DC Motor.

1. DC Shunt Motor

2. DCSeiresMotor

3. DC Compound Motor

1. DCShunt Motor

ThisisthemostcommontypesofDCMotor.Herethefieldwindingisconnectedinparallelwiththe armature
as shown in the figure below:

14
Thecurrent,voltageandpowerequationsforashuntmotorarewrittenasfollows. By

applying KCL at junction A in the above figure.

Thesum oftheincoming currentsat A =Sum oftheoutgoingcurrents at A.

Where,

Iis the input line current

Iaisthearmaturecurrent
Ish is the shunt field current

Equation(1)isthecurrentequation.

ThevoltageequationsarewrittenbyusingKirchhoff’svoltagelaw(KVL) forthefieldwinding circuit.

Forarmaturewindingcircuittheequationwillbegiven as:

15
2. DCSeiresMotor

Intheseriesmotor,thefieldwindingisconnectedinserieswiththearmaturewinding.Theconnection
diagram is shown below:

ByapplyingtheKCLintheabove figure:

Where,

Iseistheseriesfieldcurrent

Thevoltageequation canbeobtained byapplyingKVLin theabovefigure.

Thepowerequation is obtained bymultiplyingequation (8) byIweget

16
 3. DCCompoundMotor

ADCMotorhavingbothshuntandseriesfieldwindingsiscalledaCompoundMotor.Theconnection
diagram of the compound motor is shown below:

The compound motor is further subdivided as Cumulative Compound Motor and Differential
CompoundMotor.Inacumulativecompoundmotorthefluxproducedbyboththewindingsisin the same
direction, i.e.

Indifferentialcompoundmotor,thefluxproducedbytheseriesfieldwindingsisoppositetothe flux
produced by the shunt field winding, i.e.

ElectricalTransformer-BasicConstruction,WorkingandTypes

Electricaltransformerisastaticelectricalmachinewhichtransformselectricalpowerfrom
onecircuittoanothercircuit,withoutchangingthefrequency.Transformercanincreaseor
decrease thevoltagewithcorrespondingdecreaseorincreasein current.Working Principle of
Transformer

17
Thebasicprinciplebehindworkingofatransformeristhephenomenonofmutualinductionbetween two
windings linked by common magnetic flux. The figure at right shows the simplest form of a
transformer. Basicallyatransformerconsistsoftwoinductivecoils;primarywindingandsecondary
winding. The coils are electrically separated but magnetically linked to each other. When, primary
winding is connected to a source of alternating voltage, alternating magnetic. The core provides
magnetic path for the flux, to get linked with the secondary winding. Most of the flux gets linked
withthesecondarywindingwhichiscalledas'usefulflux'ormain'flux',andthefluxwhichdoesnot
getlinkedwithsecondarywindingiscalledas'leakageflux'.Asthefluxproducedisalternating(the direction
of it is continuously changing), EMF gets induced in the secondary winding according to Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction. This emf is called 'mutually induced emf', and the
frequencyofmutuallyinducedemfissameasthatofsuppliedemf.Ifthesecondarywindingisclosed
circuit,thenmutuallyinducedcurrentflowsthroughit,andhencetheelectricalenergyistransferred from
one circuit (primary) to another circuit.
BasicConstructionof Transformer

18
Basically a transformer consists of two inductive windings and a laminated steel core. The coils are
insulatedfromeachotheraswellasfromthesteelcore.Atransformermayalsoconsistofacontainer for
winding and core assembly (called as tank), suitable bushings to take our the terminals, oil
conservatortoprovideoilinthetransformertankforcoolingpurposesetc.Thefigureatleftillustrates the
basic construction of a transformer.

In all types of transformers, core is constructed by assembling (stacking) laminated sheets of steel,
withminimumair-gapbetweenthem(toachievecontinuousmagneticpath).Thesteelusedishaving
highsiliconcontentandsometimesheattreated,toprovidehighpermeabilityandlowhysteresisloss.
Laminated sheets ofsteel areused to reduceeddycurrent loss. Thesheets arecut in theshapeas E,I and
L. To avoid high reluctance at joints, laminations are stacked by alternating the sides of joint. That
is, if joints of first sheet assemblyare at front face, the joints of following assemble arekept at back
face.

TypesofTransformers

Transformerscanbeclassifiedondifferentbasis,liketypesofconstruction,typesof coolingetc.

(A) Onthebasisofconstruction,transformerscanbeclassifiedintotwotypes as;

(i) Coretypetransformerand

(ii) Shelltypetransformer,whicharedescribed below.

19
(I)CoreType Transformer
In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical former wound, mounted on the core
limbs as shown in the figure above. The cylindrical coils have different layers and each
layer is insulated from each other. Materials like paper, cloth or mica can be used for
insulation. Low voltage windings are placed nearer to the core, as they are easier to
insulate.

(Ii)ShellType Transformer
Thecoilsareformerwoundandmounted inlayersstackedwithinsulationbetweenthem.
Ashell typetransformermayhavesimple rectangularform (as shown in abovefig
(A) On thebasis of their purpose
Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in current) at
secondary. Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase in
current) at secondary.

(B) On thebasisof type ofsupplySinglephase transformer

Threephasetransformer

(C) Onthebasis of their use

Powertransformer:Used intransmissionnetwork,highrating
Distributiontransformer:Usedindistributionnetwork,comparativelylowerratingthan that
of power transformers.
Instrumenttransformer:Usedinrelayandprotectionpurposeindifferentinstruments in
industries

20
Current transformer (CT)

Potentialtransformer(PT)

(E) On thebasisof coolingemployedOil-filledselfcooled type

Oil-filledwatercooled typeAirblast type(air cooled)

Comparisonbetweencoretypeandshell type transformer

Basis for
CoreType Transformer ShellTypeTransformer
Comparison

Definition Thewindingsurroundthe core. Thecoresurroundthewinding.

Lamination Thelaminationiscutintheform of Laminationarecutintheformofthe long

Shape the L strips. strips of E and L.

Cross Section Cross-sectionmaybesquare, Thecrosssectionisrectangularin shape.

cruciform and three stepped

CopperRequire More Less

OtherName ConcentricWindingorCylindrical SandwichorDiscWinding

Winding.

Limb Two Three

Insulation More Less

Flux Thefluxisequallydistributedon the Centrallimbcarrythewholefluxand

side limbs of the core. sidelimbs carriesthehalfofthe flux.

Winding The primary and secondary Primaryandsecondarywindingsare

windingareplacedontheside limbs. placed on the central limb

MagneticCircuit Two One

21
 Basis for
CoreType Transformer ShellTypeTransformer
Comparison

Losses More Less

Maintenance Easy Difficult

Mechanical Low High

Strength

Output Less High

NaturalCooling DoesnotExist Exist

EMFEquation ofthe Transformer

Let,
N1=Numberofturnsinprimary
windingN2=Numberofturnsin
secondarywinding
Φm=Maximumfluxinthecore (in

As, shown in the fig., the flux rises sinusoidally to its maximum value Φm from 0. It
reachestothemaximumvalueinonequarterofthecyclei.einT/4sec(where,Tistime period of
the sin wave of the supply = 1/f).
Therefore,
average rate of change of flux = Φm /(T/4) =
Φm/(1/4f) Therefore,
averagerate ofchangeofflux=4fΦm ...................... (Wb/s).

22
Now,
Inducedemfperturn=rateofchangeof flux per turn

Therefore,averageemfperturn=4f Φm ................... (Volts).

Now, we know, Form factor = RMS value / average value
Therefore,RMSvalueofemfperturn=FormfactorXaverageemf

per turn. As, the flux Φ varies sinusoidally, form factor of a sine

waveis1.11Therefore,RMSvalueofemfperturn=1.11x4fΦm=

4.44fΦm.

RMSvalueofinducedemfinwholeprimarywinding(E1)=RMSvalueof emf per

turn X Number of turns in primary winding

E1 =4.44fN1Φm .......................................... eq1

Similarly,RMSinducedemfinsecondarywinding(E2)canbe

given as E2 = 4.44f N2 Φm ......................... eq 2

fromtheabove equations 1 and2,

Thisiscalledtheemfequationoftransformer,whichshows,emf/numberofturnsis same for

both primary and secondary winding.

Foranidealtransformeronnoload,E1=V1and
E2=V2.where,V1=supplyvoltageofprimary
winding
V2=terminalvoltageof secondarywinding

VoltageTransformation
Ratio (K) As derived
above,

23
 Where,K= constant
ThisconstantK isknownas voltagetransformation ratio.

IfN2 >N1, i.e. K>1, thenthe transformer iscalled step-up transformer.

IfN2 <N1, i.e. K<1, thenthe transformer iscalled step-downtransformer.

WorkingPrincipleofaSinglePhaseInductionMotor
Production of Rotating Field
Considertwo winding 'A' and 'B' so displaced that theyproduce magnetic field 90° apart in space. The
resultant of these two fields is a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude ϕm. Non-Uniform
magnetic field produces a non-uniform torque which makes the operation of the motor noisy, affect
starting torque.

Considertwo winding 'A' and 'B' so displaced that theyproduce magnetic field 90° apart in space. The
resultantofthesetwofieldsisarotatingmagneticfieldofconstantmagnitudeϕm.Non-Uniformmagnetic
fieldproducesanon-uniformtorquewhichmakestheoperationofthemotornoisy,affectstartingtorque.

StartingPrinciple

24
 A single phase induction motor consists of a single phase winding on the stator and a cage
winding on the rotor. When a 1 phase supply is connected to the stator winding, a pulsating
magnetic field is produced. In the pulsating field, the rotor does not rotate due to inertia.
Thereforeasinglephaseinductionmotorisnotself-startingand requiressomeparticularstarting
means. Two theories have been suggested to find the performance of a single phase induction
motor.

3.8.2Typesof SinglePhaseInductionMotors
Asmentionedabovethat,duetotherotatingmagneticfieldofthestator,theinductionmotor becomes
self starting. There are manymethods of making a single phase induction motor as self
starting one.
Basedonthestartingmethod,singlephaseinductionmotorsarebasicallyclassifiedintothe following
types.
Split-phase motor
Capacitorstartmotor
Capacitorstartcapacitorrunmotor Shaded
pole motor

a) Split-phase motor
In addition to the main windingor runningwinding, a single-phase induction motor’s stator
carriesanotherwindingcalledauxiliarywindingorstartingwinding.Acentrifugalswitchis
connected in series with auxiliary winding.
Thisswitchaimstodisconnecttheauxiliarywindingfromthemaincircuitwhenthemotor attains
a speed up to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed.
We know that the running winding is inductive in nature. We aim to create the phase
differencebetweenthetwowinding,andthisispossibleifthestartingwindingcarrieshigh resistance.
Inthe figurebelow,thevariablesrepresent:

• Irunisthecurrentflowingthroughthemainorrunningwinding,
• Istartisthecurrentflowinginstartingwinding,
• VTisthe supplyvoltage

25
 Forahighlyresistivewinding,thecurrentisalmostinphasewiththevoltage,andforahighly
inductive winding, the current lag behind the voltage by a large angle.

The starting winding is highly resistive so, the current flowing in the starting winding lags
behindtheappliedvoltagebyaverysmallangleand therunningwindingishighlyinductive in
nature so, the current flowing in running winding lags behind applied voltage by a large
angle.

The resultant of these two current is IT—the resultant of these two current produce rotating
magnetic field which rotates in one direction.

b) Capacitorstartmotor
Thismotorissimilartothesplitphasemotor,butinadditionacapacitorisconnectedinseries to
auxiliary winding. This is a modified version of split phase motor.
Since the capacitor draws a leading current, the use of a capacitor increases the phase angle
betweenthetwocurrents(mainandauxiliary)andhencethestartingtorque.Thisisthemain reason for
using a capacitor in single phase induction motors.
Herethecapacitorisofdry-typeelectrolyticonewhichisdesignedonlyforalternatingcurrent use. Due
to the inexpensive type of capacitors, these motors become more popular in wide applications.
Thesecapacitorsaredesignedfordefinitedutycycle,butnotforcontinuoususe.The schematic
diagram of capacitor start motor is shown in figure below.

26
Theoperationofthismotorissimilartothesplitphasemotorwherethestartingtorqueis provided
by additional winding.
Oncethespeedispickedup,theadditionalwindingalongwithcapacitorisremovedfromthe circuit
with the help of centrifugal switch. But, the difference is that the torque produced by this
motor is higher than split phase motor due to the use of capacitor.
Duetothepresenceofacapacitor,thecurrentthroughauxiliarywindingwillleadstheapplied voltage
by some angle which is more than that of split case type.
Thus,thephasedifferencebetweenmainandauxiliarycurrentsisincreasedandthereby starting
torque.
Theperformanceofthismotorisidenticaltothesplitphasemotorwhenitrunsnearfullload RPM. Due
to the capacitor, the inrush currents are reduced in this motor.
Thesemotorshaveveryhighstartingtorqueupto 300%fullloadtorque.Howeverthepower factor is
low at rated load and rated speed.
Owing to the high starting torque, these motors are used in domestic as well as industrial
applicationssuchaswaterpumps,grinders,lathemachines,compressors,drillingmachines, etc.
c) Capacitorstartcapacitorrunmotor
Theworkingprincipleofcapacitor-startinductormotorsisalmostthesameascapacitor-start
capacitor-run induction motors.
Wealreadyknowthat asingle-phaseinductionmotorisnotself-startingbecausethemagnetic
fieldproducedisnotarotatingtype.Toproducearotatingmagneticfield,theremustbesome phase
difference.

27
Inthecaseofasplit-phaseinductionmotor,weuseresistanceforcreatingphasedifference, but here
we use a capacitor for this purpose. We are familiar with the fact that the current flowing
through the capacitor leads to the voltage.
So,incapacitorstartinductormotorandcapacitorstartcapacitorruninductionmotor,weare using
two winding, the main winding, and the starting winding.
Withstartingwinding,weconnectacapacitor,sothecurrentflowinginthecapacitor,i.e.,Ist leads the
applied voltage by some angle, φst.
Therunningwindingisinductiveinnatureso,thecurrentflowinginrunningwindinglags behind
applied voltage by an angle, φm.
Nowthereoccurlargephaseangledifferencesbetweenthesetwocurrents,whichproducea resultant
current. This will produce a rotating magnetic field since the torque produced by these motors
depends upon the phase angle difference, which is almost 90o.
So, these motors produce very high starting torque. In the case of capacitor start induction
motor,thecentrifugalswitchisprovidedtodisconnectthestartingwindingwhenthemotor attains a
speed up to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed but in the case of capacitor start capacitors
run induction motor.
Thereisnocentrifugalswitchso,thecapacitorremainsinthecircuitandimprovesthepower factor
and the running conditions of the single-phase induction motor.
d) Shadedpole motor
Thestatoroftheshadedpolesingle-phaseinductionmotorhassalientorprojectedpoles. These
poles are shaded by a copper band or ring, which is inductive in nature.

28
Thepolesaredividedintotwounequalhalves.Thesmallerportioncarriesthecopperband and is
called the shaded portion of the pole.

ACTION:Whenasingle-phasesupplyisgiventoashadedpoleinductionmotor’sstator,an
alternating flux is produced.
Thischangeoffluxinducesemfintheshadedcoil.Sincethisshadedportionisshort- circuited,
the current is produced in it in such a direction to oppose the main flux.
Thefluxintheshadedpolelagsbehindthefluxintheunshadedpole.Thephasedifference between
these two fluxes produces resultant rotating flux.
StepperMotor
AStepperMotororastepmotorisabrushless,synchronousmotorwhichdividesafullrotation into a
number of steps. Unlike a brushless DC motor which rotates continuously when a fixed DC
voltage is applied to it, a step motor rotates in discrete step angles. The Stepper Motors
thereforearemanufacturedwithstepsper revolutionof 12,24,72,144,180,and200, resulting
in stepping angles of 30, 15, 5, 2.5, 2, and 1.8 degrees per step. The stepper motor can be
controlled with or without feedback.
Steppermotorsworkontheprincipleofelectromagnetism.Thereisasoftironormagneticrotor shaft
surrounded bythe electromagnetic stators. The rotor and stator have poles which maybe
teethed or not depending upon the type of stepper. When the stators are energized the rotor
movestoalignitselfalongwiththestator(incaseofapermanentmagnettypestepper)ormoves to have
a minimum gap with the stator (in case of a variable reluctance stepper). This way the stators
are energized in a sequence to rotate the stepper motor. Get more information about working
of stepper motors through interesting images at the stepper motor Insight.
Typesof StepperMotor
Byconstruction the stepmotors come intothreebroad classes:

29
1. PermanentMagnetStepper
2. VariableReluctance Stepper
3. HybridStepMotor
Thesethreetypeshavebeen explainedin detail inthefollowingsections.
1. PermanentMagnetStepper:
Therotorandstatorpolesofapermanentmagnetstepperarenotteethed.Insteadtherotorhave
alternative north and south poles parallel to the axis of the rotor shaft.

When a stator is energized, it develops electromagnetic poles. The magnetic rotor aligns along
the magnetic field of the stator. The other stator is then energized in the sequence so that the
rotor moves and aligns itself to the new magnetic field. This way energizing the stators in a
fixed sequence rotates the stepper motor by fixed angles.

The resolution of a permanent magnet stepper can be increased by increasing number of poles
in the rotor or increasing the number of phases.

30
2. Variablereluctance stepper
Thevariablereluctancestepperhasatoothednon-magneticsoftironrotor.Whenthestatorcoil is
energized the rotor moves to have a minimum gap between the stator and its teeth.

31
The teeth of the rotor are designed so that when they are aligned with one stator they get
misalignedwiththenextstator.Nowwhenthenextstatorisenergized,therotormovestoalign its teeth
with the next stator. This way energizing stators in a fixed sequence completes the rotation of
the step motor.

The resolution of a variable reluctance stepper can be increased by increasing the number of
teeth in the rotor and by increasing the number of phases.

3. Hybridstepper:
Ahybridstepperisacombinationofbothpermanentmagnetandthevariablereluctance.Ithas a
magnetic teethed rotor which better guides magnetic flux to preferred location in the air gap.

32
Themagneticrotorhastwocups.Onefornorthpolesandsecondforthesouthpoles.Therotor cups are
designed so that that the north and south poles arrange in alternative manner. Check out the
insight of a Hybrid Stepper Motor.

33
TheHybridmotorrotateson sameprincipleofenergizingthe statorcoilsina sequence.

ApplicationsofStepperMotors
Steppermotorsarediverseintheiruses,butsomeofthemostcommoninclude: 3D
printing equipment
Textile machines
Printing presses
Gamingmachines
Medicalimagingmachinery
Small robotics
CNCmillingmachines Welding
equipment

34
 Questions
S.NO QUESTION
1 List theapplications ofDCShunt generators.
2 Whatis the functionofacommutatorin a dc machine?
3 ListtheapplicationsofDCseriesmotors.
4 Whatarethetypesof transformer?
5 Writethe EMFequationof a transformer.
6 Writedown theEMFequation ofDCgenerator
7 Statethesignificanceof back EMF.
8 Whatarethedifferent typesofDC motor?
9 Listtheapplicationsofsteppermotor
10 Listtheapplicationsofsinglephaseinductionmotors,

S.NO QUESTION
1 Describetheconstructional featuresof adcmachinewithneat sketch.
2 Explainthe workingprincipleof DC Generatorandderiveits emf equation.
3 DrawandexplaintheconnectiondiagramofDCseries,shuntandcompound motor.

4 Withneatsketchexplaintheconstructionaldetailsof asinglephasetransformer.
5 Explainwithneat sketchthe typesof transformer.
6 Explain the workingprincipleof aDC motor
7 Explainthesignificanceofbackemf.
8 ExplainthePrinciple andoperation ofsingle phaseinduction motor.
9 Explain with neat sketch about a) Split phase induction motor, b) capacitor start
inductionmotor,c)capacitorstart-capacitorruninductionmotor,d)shadedpole
induction motor.
10 Explain with neat sketch about a) permanent magnet stepper motor b) variable
reluctance stepper motor c) hybrid stepper motor

References:
1. MittleB.N.&AravindMittle,BasicElectricalEngineering,2ndEdition, TataMcGrawHill, 2011.
2. Theraja B.L., Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, 1st Edition, S.Chand
& Co., 2009.
3. KothariD.P.andNagarathI.J.,ElectricalMachines,3rdEdition,TataMcGrawHill Publishing
Company Limited, 2006.

35
 SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
DEPARTMENTOFELECTRICALANDELECTRONICSENGINEERING

BASICELECTRICALANDELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING-SEEA1101
UNIT – IV
SEMICONDUCTORDEVICES
 UNITIVSEMICONDUCTORDEVICES

VICharacteristicsofPN-junctiondiodesandZenerdiodes,BJTand itsconfigurations –input/ output

Characteristics, Junction Field Effect Transistor –Drain and Transfer Characteristics,
MOSFET –Depletion type and Enhancement type, Uni Junction Transistors –Silicon
Controlled Rectifiers.

CLASSIFICATIONOFMATERIALS:

Materialscanbeclassified basedonitsconductivitypropertyas:

Conductor: A conductor is a material which allows free flow of charge when a voltage is
applied across its terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. Eg: Copper, Aluminum, Silver,
Gold.
Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere betweenthe
insulator and conductor. The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 104 Ω-cm. Eg:
SiliconandGermanium. Bothhave4valanceelectrons. ElectronicdeviceslikePNdiode, Zener
diode Bipolar Junction Transistor are made using these semiconductors.
Insulator: An insulator is a materialthat offers a very low level (or negligible) of conductivity
when voltage is applied. Eg: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz.
Classificationofsemiconductors
• Intrinsicsemiconductor
• Extrinsicsemiconductor
Intrinsicsemiconductor
They are semi-conducting materials whichare pure and no impurityatoms are added to it. Eg:
Germanium and Silicon.

Properties:
• Numberofelectrons isequaltothe numberofholes.I.e.,ne=nh.
• Electricalconductivityislow.
• Electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors depends on their
temperatures.
•
Extrinsicsemiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductor has very limited applications as they conduct very small amountsof
current at room temperature. The current conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor can
be increased significantly by adding a small amounts impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor.
By adding impurities it becomes impure or extrinsic semiconductor. This process of adding
impurities is called as doping. The amount of impurity added is 1 part in 106 atoms
Properties:
• Thenumberofelectronsisnotequaltothenumberofholes.
• Theelectricalconductivityishigh.
• Theelectricalconductivitydependsonthetemperatureandtheamountof impurity
added in them. They are further subdivided as
• Ptypesemiconductor
• Ntypesemiconductor

2
Ptypesemiconductor:

WhenaintrinsicsemiconductorisaddedwithTrivalentimpurityitbecomesaP-Type
semiconductor. Examples oftrivalent impurities are Boron, Gallium, indium etc.

Fig.4.1PtypeSemiconductor

The crystal structure of P type semiconductor is shown in the Fig. 4.1. The three valance
electrons of the impurity (boron).
forms three covalent bonds withthe neighboring atoms and a vacancyexists inthe fourthbond
giving rise to the holes. The hole is ready to accept an electron from the neighboringatoms.
Eachtrivalent atomcontributestooneholegenerationandthusintroducesalargeno.ofholesin
thevalanceband.Atthesametimetheno.electronsaredecreasedcomparedtothoseavailablein
intrinsicsemiconductorbecauseofincreasedrecombinationdueto creationofadditionalholes. Thus
in P type semiconductor,
• Holesaremajoritycarriersandelectronsareminoritycarriers.
• Thesemiconductorisrichinholes.N
type semiconductor:

If the added impurity is a pentavalent atom then the resultant semiconductor is called N-type
semiconductor. Examples of pentavalent impurities are Phosphorus, Arsenic, Bismuth,
Antimony etc.
A pentavalent impurity has five valance electrons. Fig 4.2 shows the crystal structure of N
type semiconductor material where four out of five valance electrons of the impurity
atom(antimony) forms covalent bond with the four intrinsic semiconductor atoms. The fifth
electron is loosely bound to the impurity atom. This loosely bound electron can be easily
excited from the valance band to the conduction band by the application of electricfield or
increasing the thermal energy. The energy required to detach the fifth electron form the
impurityatomis verysmallofthe orderof0.01ev for Geand 0.05 eV for Si. Thus in a Ntype
semiconductor
• Electronsaremajoritycarriersand holesareminoritycarriers.
• Thesemiconductorisrichinelectrons.
 Electro

Fig.4.2NtypeSemiconductor

PNJUNCTIONTHEORY

WhenPandNtypesemiconductorsarefusedtogether,weobtainPNjunction.Whenfirstjoined
together, verylargedensitygradient exists betweenbothsidesofthe PN junction.Thereforeat the
junction there is a tendency of free electrons from N side to diffuse overto the P side and
theholestotheNside. Thisprocess iscalleddiffusion. Hencesomeof the freeelectrons from the N
side begin to migrate across this newly formed junction tofill up the holes in the P- type
material.
As the free electrons move across the junction from N type to P type, they leave behind
positively charge (donor ions) on the negative side and hence a positive charge is built onthe
N-sideof the junction. Similarly, the holes from the P side migrate across the junctionin the
oppositedirectionintotheNregionwheretherearelargenumbersoffreeelectrons.Asa result, the
charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with negatively charged acceptor ions,
and hence a negative charge is built on the P-side of the junction. The width of these layers
depends on how heavily each side is doped with acceptor densityand donor density
respectively.
TheelectrostaticfieldacrossthejunctioncausedbythepositivelychargedN-Typeregiontends to
drive the holes away fromthe junction and negatively charged P type regions tend to drive the
electrons away from the junction. Thus near the junction, a region depleted of mobile charge
carriers is formed. This is called depletion layer, space region,and transition region. The
depletion region is of the order of 0.5µm thick. There are nomobile carriers in this narrow
depletion region. Hence no current flows across the junction and the system is in equilibrium.
 Fig.4.3PNjunction FORWARD
BIASED OPERATION

When external voltage is applied then the potential difference is altered between the P and N
regions. Positive terminal of the source is connected to the P side and the negativeterminal is
connected to N side then the PN junction diode is said to be connected in forward bias
condition.Thislowersthepotentialacrossthejunction.Themajoritychargecarriers inN and P
regions are attracted towards the PN junction and the width of the depletion layer decreases
with diffusion of the majority

Fig.4.4ForwardbiasPNjunctiondiode

charge carriers. The external biasing causes a departure fromthe stateofequilibrium and also
inthe depletion layer. Withthe increase in forward biasgreaterthanthe builtinpotential, ata
particular value the depletion region becomes very much thinner so thata large number of
majority charge carriers can cross the PN junction and conducts an electric current. The
current flowing upto built inpotential is called asZERO current orKNEE current.
 ReverseBiasOperation

Positive terminal of the source is connected to the N side and the negative terminal is
connected to P side. Here majority charge carriers are attracted away fromthe depletionlayer
by their respective battery terminals connected to PN junction. Positive terminal attracts the
electrons away from the junction inN side and negative terminal attracts theholes away from
the junction in P side. Asaresult ofit, thewidth ofthepotential barrierincreasesthat impedes the
flow of majority carriers in N side and P side. The width of thefree space charge layer
increases, therebyelectric field at the PN junction increases and the PN junctiondiode acts as a
resistor. The current that flows in a PN junction diode is the small leakage current, due to
minority carriers generated at the depletion layer orminority carriers which drift across the PN
junction. The growth in the width of the depletion layer presents a high impedance path which
acts as an insulator.

Fig.4.5ReversebiasPNjunctiondiode

.VIcharacteristicsofPNDiode

TheVIcharacteristicsofPNjunctiondiode inforwardbiasarenon linear,that is, not a straight line.

This nonlinear characteristic illustrates that during the operation of the PN junction, the
resistance is not constant. The slope of the PN junction diode in forward biasshows the
resistance is very low. When forward bias is applied to the diode if this externalvoltage
becomesgreaterthanthevalueofthepotentialbarrier, approx. 0.7voltsforsiliconand 0.3 volts for
germanium, then it causes a low impedance path and permits to conducta large amount of
current. Thus the current starts to flow above the knee point with a smallamount of external
potential.
In reverse bias condition, the P-type of the PN junction is connected to the negative terminal
and N-type is connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage. This results in
increased potential barrier at the junction. Hence, the junction resistance becomes very high
and as a result practically no current flows through the circuit. However, a very small currentof
the order of μA, flows through the circuit in practice. This is knows as reverse saturation
current and it is due to the minority carriers in the junction.
 Fig.4.6VIcharacteristicsofPNDiode

ApplicationsofPNjunctionDiode:

TheP-Njunctiondiodehasmanyapplications.
• P-N junction diode in reverse biased configuration is sensitive to light from a range
between400nmto1000nm,whichincludesVISIBLElight.Therefore,itcanbeusedasa
photodiode.
• Itcanalsobeusedasasolarcell.
• P-NjunctionforwardbiasconditionisusedinallLEDlightingapplications.
• Thevoltage across the P-N junction biased is used to create Temperature Sensors,and
Referencevoltages.
• Itisusedinmanycircuits‟rectifiers,varactorforvoltagecontrolledoscillators.

ZENERDIODE:

A zener diode is a special type of device designed to operate in the zener breakdown region
which is heavily doped than the normal PN junction diode. Hence, it has very thin depletion
region. Therefore, Zener diode allowmoreelectriccurrent than the normal PN junctiondiodes
under forward bias like a normal diode but also allows electric currentin the reverse direction if
the applied reverse voltage is greater than the zener voltage. Thus they are always connected in
reverse direction because it is specifically designed to work in reverse direction. The
breakdown voltage ofa Zener diode is carefully set bycontrolling the doping levelduring
manufacture.The name Zener diode was named afterthe American physicist Clarance Melvin
Zener who discovered the zener effect.

Diodesymbol

BreakdowninZenerdiode

There are two types of reverse breakdown regions in a Zener diode: Avalanche breakdown
and Zener breakdown.

Avalanchebreakdown
The avalanche breakdown occurs at high reverse voltage. When high reverse voltage is
appliedtothediode,thefreeelectronsgains largeamountofenergyandacceleratedto greater
velocities. The free electrons moving at highspeed willcollides withthe atoms andknockoff
moreelectrons. Theseelectronsareagainacceleratedand collidewithotheratoms. Because of this
continuous collision with the atoms, a large number of free electrons are generated. This
cumulative process is referred to as avalanche multiplication which results in the flow oflarge
reverse current and this breakdown of the diode is called avalanche breakdown. Avalanche
breakdown occurs in zener diodes with zener voltage greater than 6V.

Zenerbreakdown:
The zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped diodes because of their narrow depletion
region. When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode is increased, the narrow depletion
regiongeneratesstrongelectric field. Whenit reachescloseto zener voltage, theelectric field
inthedepletionregion isstrongenoughto pullelectrons fromtheir valenceband.Thevalence
electronswhich gains sufficient energy from the strong electricfield of depletion region will
breaks bonding with the parent atom. The valance electronswhich break bonding with parent
atom will become free electrons. This free electrons results in large electric current, a small
increase involtage willrapidlyincreases the electric current. This breakdown is referred toas
Zener breakdown.
Note:
• Zenerbreakdownoccursat lowreversevoltagewhereasavalanche breakdownoccursat
high reverse voltage.
• Zener breakdown occurs in Zenerdiodes because they have very thin
depletionregion.
• Breakdownregionisthenormaloperatingregion forazenerdiode.
• Zenerbreakdownoccurs inZenerdiodeswithZenervoltagelessthan6V.
ZENERDIODECHARACTERISTICS:

When a Zener diode is biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal PN
junction diode.
Under reverse-biased condition, the reverse voltage is applied. As the reverse bias voltageis
increased,breakdownofthejunctionoccurs.Thebreakdownvoltagedependsupontheamount of
doping. If the diode is heavily doped, depletion layer will be thin and consequently,
breakdown occurs at lower reverse voltage and further, the breakdown voltage is sharp. A
lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown voltage. Thus breakdownvoltage can be selected
with the amount of doping .This breakdown voltage point is calledthe "Zener voltage or
breakdownvoltage"anda largeamount ofcurrentflowsthroughtheZenerdiodes.ThisZener
breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.
 Fig.4.7VI characteristicsofZenerdiodeZENERDIODEASAVOLTAGE

REGULATOR

FromtheZenerCharacteristicsshown,underreversebiascondition,thevoltageacross
the diode remains constant although the current through the diode increases as
shown.Thusthevoltageacrossthezener diodeservesas areferencevoltage. Hencethediode
canbeused as a voltage regulator.

Fig.4.8Voltageregulator

It is required to provide constant voltage across load resistance RL , whereas the input voltage
may be varying over a range. As shown, Zener diode is reverse biased and as longas the input
voltage does not fall below Zener breakdown voltage, the voltage across the diode will be
constant and hence the load voltage will also be constant.

BIPOLARJUNCTIONTRANSISTORINTRODUCTION

The transistor was developed byDr. Shockleyalong with Bell Laboratories team in 1951.It is a
three terminal device whose output current, voltage and power are controlled by itsinput
current. Incommunication systems it is the primary component in theamplifier. Theimportant
propertyofthetransistor is that it canraisethestrengthofaweak signal. Thispropertyiscalled
amplification. Transistors are used in digital computers, satellites, mobile phones and other
communication systems, control systems etc., A transistor consists of two P-N junction. The
junctionareformedbysandwitchingeitherp-typeorn-typesemiconductorlayersbetweena
pairofoppositetypeswhichisshown below

Fig.4.9Transistor

TRANSISTORCONSTRUCTION:

Atransistorhasthreeregionsknownasemitter,baseandcollector. Emitter:
• Itisaregionsituatedinonesideofatransistor,whichsupplieschargecarriers(ie.,
electrons and holes) to the other two regions
• Emitterisheavilydopedregion
Base:
• Itisthemiddleregion thatformstwoP-Njunctioninthetransistor
• The base ofthetransistor is thinascompared tothe emitterand is a lightlydoped
region
Collector:
• Itisaregionsituatedintheothersideofatransistor(ie.,sideoppositetothe emitter) which
collects the charge carriers.
• Thecollectorofthe transistoris alwayslargerthantheemitterandbaseofatransistor
• Thedopinglevelofthecollectorisintermediatebetweentheheavydopingof emitter and
the light doping ofthe base.

TRANSISTORSYMBOLS

NPN Transistor PNPtransistor

Fig. 4.10 Transistor

• ThetransistorsymbolcarriesanarrowheadintheemitterpointingfromtheP-
 regiontowardstheN- region
• Thearrowheadindicatesthedirectionofaconventionalcurrentflowinatransistor.
• The directionofarrowheadsat theemitter inNPN and PNPtransistorisoppositeto
eachother.
• ThePNPtransistorisacomplementoftheNPNtransistor.
• InNPNtransistorthe majoritycarriersare freeelectrons, while inPNPtransistorthese are
the holes.

UNBIASEDTRANSISTORS

A transistor with three terminals (Emitter, Base, Collector) left open is called an
unbiased transistor or an open – circuited transistor. The diffusion of free electrons acrossthe
junctionproduces two depletion layers. The barrier potential of three layers isapproximately
0.7v for silicon transistor and 0.3v for germanium transistor. Since the regions have different
doping levelsthereforethe layersdo not have the same width. The emitter base depletion layer
penetrates slightly into the emitter as it is a heavilydoped region where as it penetrates deeply
into the base as it is a lightly doped region. Similarly the collector- base depletion layer
penetrates more into the base region and less into the collector region. The emitter- base
depletion layer width is smaller than that of collector base depletion layer. The unbiased
transistor is never used in actualpractice. Because of this we went for transistorbiasing.

OPERATIONOFNPNTRANSISTOR

Fig.4.11NPNTransistor

• The NPN transistor is biased in forward active mode ie., emitter – base of transistor is
forward biased and collectorbase junctionis reverse biased
• The emitter – base junction is forward biased only if V is greaterthan barrier potential
which is 0.7v for silicon and 0.3v for germanium transistor
• The forward bias on the emitter- base junction causes the free electrons in the N – type
emitter to flow towards the base region. This constitutes the emitter current (IE).
Direction of conventional current is opposite to the flow of electrons.
• Electronsafterreachingthebaseregiontendtocombinewiththeholes.
• Ifthesefreeelectronscombinewithholesinthebase,theyconstitutebasecurrent(IB).
• Mostofthefreeelectronsdonotcombinewiththeholesinthebase.
• This isbecauseofthefactthatthebaseandthewidthis madeextremelysmalland
electrons do not get sufficient holes for recombination.
 • Thus most of the electrons will diffuse to the collector region and constitutes collector
current (IC).Thiscollectorcurrent isalso called injectedcurrent, becauseofthis current is
produced due to electrons injected from the emitter region
• There isanother componentofcollectorcurrentduetothethermalgeneratedcarriers.
• Thisiscalledasreversesaturationcurrentandisquitesmall.

OPERATIONOFPNPTRANSISTOR

Fig.4.12PNPTransistor

• OperationofaPNPtransistorissimilartonpntransistor
• ThecurrentwithinthePNPtransistorisduetothemovement ofholeswhereas, inan NPN
transistor it is due to the movement of free electrons
• In PNPtransistor, its emitter – base junction is forward biased andcollector base
junction is reverse biased.
• Theforwardbiasontheemitter–basejunctioncauses theholesin theemitter region to
flow towards the base region
• Thisconstitutestheemittercurrent (IE).
• Theholesafterreachingthebaseregioncombinewiththeelectronsinthebaseand
constitute base current (IB).
• Mostoftheholesdonotcombinewiththeelectronsinthebaseregion
• This is duetothe fact that base widthismade extremelysmall, andholes doesnotget
sufficient electrons for recombination.
• Thusmostoftheholesdiffusetothecollectorregionandconstitutescollector current
(IC).
• Thiscurrentiscalledinjectedcurrent,becauseitisproducedduetotheholes injected
from the emitter region
• Thereissmallcomponentofcollectorcurrentduetothethermallygenerated carriers
• Thisisalsocalledasreversesaturationcurrent.

TRANSISTORCONFIGURATIONS

• A transistor is a three terminaldevice, but we require four terminals (two forinput

and two for output) for connecting it in a circuit.
• Henceoneoftheterminalismadecommontotheinputandoutputcircuits.
• Thecommonterminalisgrounded.
 • Therearethreetypesofconfigurationfortheoperationofatransistor.

Commonbaseconfiguration

Thisisalsocalledgroundedbaseconfiguration
•
In this configurationemitteris theinput terminal,collector isthe
•
output terminal and base is the common terminal
Commonemitterconfiguration(CE)

• Thisisalsocalledgroundedemitterconfiguration
• Inthisconfigurationbaseistheinputterminal,collectoristheoutput
terminal and emitter is the common terminal

Commoncollectorconfiguration(CC)

• Thisisalsocalledgroundedcollectorconfiguration
• Inthisconfiguration,baseistheinputterminal,emitteristheoutput
terminal and collector is the common terminal.

COMMONBASECONFIGURATION(CB)

Fig.4.13CBConfiguration

• Theinputisconnectedbetweenemitterandbaseandoutputisconnected
across collector and base
• Theemitter–basejunctionisforwardbiasedandcollector–base junction is
reverse biased.
• Theemitter current, flows in theinput circuit and thecollector currentflows
in the output circuit.
• Theratioofthecollectorcurrenttotheemittercurrent iscalled current
amplificationfactor.

CHARACTERISTICSOFCBCONFIGURATION

• Theperformanceoftransistorsdeterminedfromtheircharacteristiccurvesthat
relate different d.c currents and voltages of a transistor
• SuchcurvesareknownasstaticcharacteristicscurvesTherearetwo
important characteristics of a transistor

➢ Inputcharacteristics
➢ Outputcharacteristics
 Fig.4.14CharacteristicsofCBConfiguration

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

The curve drawn betweenemitter current and emitter –base voltage foragiven value ofcollector– base
voltage is known as input Characteristic curves.
Thefollowingpointsaretakenintoconsideration fromthecharacteristiccurve.

• For a specific value of VCB, the curve is a diode characteristic in the forward region.
The PN emitter junction is forward biased.
• When the value of the voltage base current increases the value of emitter current
increases slightly. The junction behaves like a better diode. The emitter and collector
current is independent of the collector base voltage VCB.
• Theemittercurrent IEincreaseswiththesmallincrease in emitter-base voltageVEB. It
shows that input
resistance is small.

Input Resistance

The ratio ofchange in emitter-base voltage to the resulting change in emitter current at
constant collector base voltage VCB is known as input resistance. The input resistance
is expressed by the formula.

Basewidthmodulation(or)Earlyeffect

• Inatransistor,sincetheemitter–basejunctionisforwardbiasedthereisnoeffect on the
width of the depletion region.
• However, since collector – base junction is reverse biased, as the reverse bias
voltage across the collector – base junction increases the width of thedepletion
region also increases.
• Since the base is lightly doped the depletion region penetrates deeper into the
baseregion.
• Thisreducestheeffective widthofthebaseregion.
• This variation or modulation of the effective base width bythe collector – base
voltage is known as base width modulation or early effect.

Thedecreaseinbasewidthbythecollectorvoltagehasthefollowing threeeffects
 base region. Hence current gain increases with increase in collector – base
voltage.
• The concentration gradient of minority carriers within the base increases. This
increases the emitter current.
• For extremely collector voltage, the effective base width may be reduced to
zero,resulting involtage breakdownofatransistor. This phenomenon is known as
punch through.

Outputcharacteristics

Thecurvedrawnbetweencollectorcurrent andcollector –basevoltage, foragivenvalueof emitter

current is known as output characteristics.

Fig.4.15CharacteristicsofCB Configuration

• The active region of the collector-base junction is reverse biased, the collector
current IC is almost equal to the emitter current IE. The transistoris always
operated in this region.
• The curve of the active regions is almost flat. The large charges in
VCBproduceonlya tinychange inIC. Thecircuit has veryhighoutputresistancero.
• When VCB is positive, the collector-base junction is forward bias and the
collector current decrease suddenly. This is the saturation state in which the
collector current does not depend on the emitter current.
• When the emitter current is zero, the collector current is not zero. The current
which flows through the circuit is the reverse leakage current, i.e., ICBO. The
current is temperature depends and its value range from 0.1 to
1.0μAforsilicontransistorand2to5μAforgermaniumtransistor.

OutputResistance

The ratio of change in collector-base voltage to the change in collector current atconstant
emitter current IE is known as output resistance.
COMMON–EMITTERCONFIGURATION

• Theinputisconnectedbetweenbaseandemitter,whileoutputisconnected between
collector and emitter
• Emitteriscommontobothinputandoutputcircuits.
• ThebiasvoltageappliedareVceandVbe.
• Theemitter-basejunctionisforwardbiasedandcollector-emitterjunctionis reverse
biased.
• ThebasecurrentIbflowsintheinputcircuitandcollectorcurrentIcflowssinthe
outputcircuit.

Fig.4.16CEConfiguration

INPUTCHARACTERISTICS

• The curve plotted between base current IB and the base-emitter voltage VEB is
called Input characteristics curve.
• Fordrawingtheinputcharacteristicthereadingofbasecurrentsistakenthroughthe
ammeter on emitter voltage VBE at constant collector-emitter current.
• Thecurvefordifferentvalueofcollector-basecurrentisshowninthefigurebelow.

Fig.4.17CharacteristicsofCEConfiguration

• The curve for common Emitter configuration is similar to a forward diode

characteristic.
• The base current IB increases withthe increases in the emitter-base voltage VBE. Thus
the input resistance of the CE configuration is comparatively higher that of CB
configuration.
• The effect ofCE does not cause large deviationonthe curves, and hence the effect ofa
change in VCE on theinput characteristic is ignored.
InputResistance:

Theratioof changeinbase-emittervoltageVBEtothechangeinbasecurrent∆IBat constant

collector-emitter voltage VCE is known as input resistance, i.e.,

OUTPUTCHARACTERISTIC
InCE configurationthecurvedraws betweencollector current ICandcollector-emitter voltage
VCE at a constant base current IB is called output characteristic. The characteristic curve for
the typical NPN transistor in CE configuration is shown in the figure below.

Fig.4.18CharacteristicsofCEConfiguration

• In the active region, the collector current increases slightly as collector-emitter VCE
current increases. The slope ofthe curve is quite more than the output characteristic of
CB configuration. The output resistance of the common base connection is more than
that of CE connection.
• The value of the collector current IC increases with the increase in VCE at constant
voltage IB, the value β ofalso increases.
• When the VCE falls, the IC also decreases rapidly. The collector-base junction of the
transistor always in forward bias and work saturate. In the saturation region, the
collector current becomes independent and free from the input current IB
• In the active region IC = βIB, a small current IC is not zero, and it is equal to reverse
leakage current ICEO.

OutputResistance:

The ratio of the variation in collector-emitter voltage to the collector-emitter current is known
at collectorcurrents at a constant base current IB iscalled output resistance ro.

Thevalue ofoutput resistanceofCEconfiguration ismorethanthat ofCB.

COMMON-COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION
CC configuration. InCC configuration, the input circuit is connected betweenemitter andbase
and the output is taken from the collector and emitter. The collector is common to both the
input and output circuit and hence the name common collector connection or commoncollector
configuration.

Fig.4.19CBConfiguration

INPUTCHARACTERISTICS

The input characteristic ofthe common collectorconfiguration is drawn betweencollectorbase

voltage VCE and base current IB at constant emitter current voltage VCE. The valueof the
output voltage VCE changes with respect to the input voltage VBC and IB With thehelp of
thesevalues, input characteristiccurve isdrawn. The input characteristiccurve isshownbelow.

Fig.4.20InputCharacteristicsofCCConfiguration OUTPUT

CHARACTERISTICS
Theoutput characteristicofthecommonemitter circuit isdrawn betweenthe emitter- collector
voltage VEC and output current IE at constant input current IB. Ifthe input current IB is zero,
then the collector current also becomes zero, and no current flows through the transistor.
 Fig.4.21Output CharacteristicsofCCConfiguration

The transistor operates in active region when the base current increases and reaches to
saturationregion. The graph is plotted bykeeping the base current IB constant and varyingthe
emitter-collectorvoltage VCE, the values ofoutput current IE arenoticed withrespect to VCE.
Byusing the VCE and IE at constant IBthe output characteristic curve isdrawn.

JUNCTIONFIELDEFFECTTRANSISTOR(JFET)

JFETis a unipolar-transistor, which acts as a voltage controlled current device andis a

device in which current at two electrodes is controlled by the action ofan electric fieldat a PN
junction.
A JFET, or junction field-effect transistor, or JUGFET, is a FET in which the gateis
createdby reverse-biased junction (as opposed to the MOSFET which creates a junctionvia a
field generated by conductive gate, separated from the gate region by a thin insulator).

Fig.4.22 JFET

CONSTRUCTION
N-ChannelJFET
The figureshowsconstructionand symbolofN-channelJFET. Asmallbar ofextrinsic
semiconductormaterial, Ntype istaken and itstwo ends,twoohmiccontactsare madewhich is the
drain and source terminals of FET.
 Heavilydoped electrodesofPtype materialformPN junctionsoneachside ofthe bar. Thethin
region betweenthetwo Pgatesiscalled thechannel. Sincethischannelis in theNtypebar, the FET
is known as N-channelJFET.
The electrons enter the channel through the terminal called source andleave through the
terminal called drain. The terminals taken out from heavily doped electronicsof P type material
are called gates. These electrodes are connected together and only one terminal is taken out,
which is called gate, as shown below.

Fig.4.23N-ChannelJFET

P-ChannelJFET
The device could be made of P type bar with two N type gates as shown in the figure
below. This will be P- channel JFET. The principle of working of N-channel JFET

Fig.4.24P-ChannelJFET

and P-channelJFET are similar. The only difference being that in N-channel JFET the current
is carried by electrons while in P-channel JFET, it is carried byholes.

WORKINGOFJFET

One best example to understand the working of a JFET is to imagine the garden hose pipe.
Supposeagardenhoseisprovidingawaterflow throughit.Ifwesqueezethehosethewaterflow will be
less and ata certain pointif we squeeze itcompletely therewill be zerowater
flow. JFETworksexactlyin that way. Ifweinterchange thehosewithaJFETandthewaterflow with a
current and then construct the current-carrying channel, we could control the currentflow.

Whenthere is no voltage across gate and source, the channel becomes a smooth path whichis
wide open for electrons to flow. But the reverse thing happens when a voltage is applied
between gate and source in reverse polarity, which makes the P-N junction, reversed biasedand
makes the channel narrower by increasing the depletion layer and could put the JFET in cut-off
or pinch off region.
Inthebelowimagewecanseethesaturation modeandpinchoffmodeandwewillbe

Fig.4.25OperationofJFET

able to understand the depletion layer became wider and the current flow becomes less.Ifwe
want to switchoffaJFET weneedto provideanegativegatetosourcevoltagedenotedas VGS for an
N-type JFET. For a P-type JFET, we need to provide positive VGS.
JFETonlyworksinthe depletion mode.

CHARACTERISTICSOFJFETS

Therearetwotypesofstaticcharacteristicsviz
1. Outputordraincharacteristics and
2. Transfercharacteristic.
 Fig.4.26DrainCharacteristicsofJFET

OUTPUT OR DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS.

• The curve drawn between drain current Ip and drain-source voltage VDS with gate-to
source voltage VGS as the parameter is called the drain or output characteristic. This
characteristic is analogous to collector characteristic ofa BJT:
TRANSFERCHARACTERISTICSOFJFET
• The transfer characteristic for a JFET can be determined experimentally, keepingdrain-
source voltage, VDS constant and determining drain current, ID for variousvalues of
gate-source voltage, VGS.
• The circuit diagram is shown in fig. The curve is plotted between gate-source voltage,
VGS and drain current, ID , as illustrated in fig. It is similar to the transconductance
characteristics of a vaccum tube or a transistor.
• Itisobserved that
1. Draincurrentdecreaseswiththeincreaseinnegativegate-sourcebias
2. Draincurrent,ID=IDSSwhenVGS=0
3. Draincurrent,ID =0whenVGS=VD

Fig.4.27TransferCharacteristicsofJFET
The pinch off voltage is the value ofVDS at which the drain current reaches its constantsaturation
value. Any further increase in VDS does not have anyeffect onthe value ofID.

METALOXIDESEMICONDUCTORFIELDEFFECTTRANSISTOR (MOSFET)

MOSFET stands for metaloxide semiconductor field effect transistor which is widelyused
for switching and amplifying electronic signals in the electronic devices. It is capable of
voltage gain and signal power gain. The MOSFET is a core of integrated circuit and it can be
designed and fabricated in a single chip because of these very small sizes.
TheMOSFETisafourterminaldevicewithsource(S),gate(G),drain(D)andbody
(B) or substrate terminals. Thebody of the MOSFET is frequently connected to the source
terminal so making it a three terminaldevice like field effect transistor. The MOSFET is very
far the most commontransistor and can be used inbothanalog and digital circuits.
The drain and source terminals are connected to the heavily doped regions. The gate
terminal is connected top on the oxide layer.The metal of the gate terminal and the
semiconductor acts the parallel and the oxide layer acts as insulator of the state MOScapacitor.
Between the drain and source terminal inversion layer is formed and due to theflow of carriers
in it, the current flows in MOSFET the inversion layer is properties are controlledby gate
voltage. Thus it is a voltage controlled device.

Fig.4.28MOSFET

Fig.4.29TypesofMOSFET
TYPES OFMOSFET

• DepletiontypeMOSFET
▪ Depletionmode –NegativeGate-SourceVoltage(VGS)isapplied
▪ Enhancementmode–PositiveGate-SourceVoltage(VGS)isapplied.
• EnhancementtypeMOSFET

Depletion Type MOSFET:

Whenthere iszero voltage onthegate terminal, the channelshows its maximumconductance. As

the voltage on the gate is negative or positive, then decreases the channelconductivity.

Fig.4.30ConstructionofDepletionTypeMOSFET&Symbols
• TheDrain(D)andsource(S)leads connecttothen–dopedregions
• Thendopedregions areconnectedbyanN–Channel
• ThisN-ChannelisconnectedtotheGate(G)throughathininsulatinglayerofSiO2.
• Then-dopedmaterialliesonap-dopedsubstratethatmayhaveanadditional terminal
connection called SS.

EnhancementtypeMOSFET:

Whenthereisnovoltageonthegateterminalthedevicedoesnotconduct.Morevoltage applied on the gate

terminal, the device has good conductivity.

Fig.4.31ConstructionofEnhancementTypeofMOSFET&Symbols
 • The Enhancement type MOSFET is equivalent to “Normally Open” switch and these
types oftransistors require gate-source voltage to switch ON the device.
• The broken line is connected between the source and drain which represents the
enhancement type. In enhancement type MOSFETs the conductivity increases by
increasing the oxide layer which adds the carriers to the channel.
• Generally, this oxide layer is called as „Inversion layer‟. The channel is formed
betweenthe drain and source in theopposite type to the substrate, such as N-channelis
made with a P-type substrate and P-channel is made with an N-type substrate. The
conductivity of the channel due to electrons or holes depends on N-type or P- type
channelrespectively.

WORKINGOFDEPLETIONTYPE MOSFET:

Fig.4.32ConstructionofEnhancement TypeofMOSFET&Symbols

Working of Depletion Type MOSFET

Thegate-to-sourcevoltage isset to zero voltsbythedirect connectionfromoneterminal tothe other

and a voltage VDS is applied across the drain to source terminals. The result is an attraction for
the positive potential at the drain by the free electrons of the n-channeland a current similar
tothat establishedthroughthechanneloftheJFET. Infact,the resulting current with VGS = 0 V
continues tobelabeled IDSS, as shown in the characteristics of depletion type MOSFET in the
below figure.

VGS has been set at a negative voltage such as 1 V. The negative potentialat the gate
willtend to pressure electrons towardthe p-type substrate(like charges repel) and attract holes
from the p-type substrate (opposite charges attract) as shown in the above figure
 Fig. 4.33Drain and Transfer Characteristics of Depletion type MOSFET

DependingonthemagnitudeofthenegativebiasestablishedbyVGS,alevelof
recombination between electrons and holes will occur that will reduce the number of free
electrons in the n-channel available for conduction. The more negative the bias, the higherthe
rateof recombination. The resulting levelof drain current is therefore reduced with increasing
negative bias for VGS as shown in the figure below for VGS = - 1 V, - 2 V, andso on, to the
pinch-offlevelof6 V.The resulting levelsofdrain current andtheplottingofthetransfer curve
proceeds exactly as described for the JFET.

Fig.4.34DepletiontypeMOSFET

Forpositive values ofVGS, the positive gate will draw additionalelectrons (free carriers)from
the p-type substrate due to the reverse leakage current and establish new carriers through the
collisions resulting between accelerating particles. As the gate to source voltagecontinues to
increase in the positive direction, characteristics of depletion type MOSFET reveals that the
drain current will increase at a rapid rate for the reasons listed above.

The verticalspacing betweentheVGS =0Vand VGS =1Vcurves inthecharacteristic curve

is a clear indication of how much the current has increased for the 1-V change in VGS. Due to
the rapidrise,the usermustbeaware of themaximum drain
current rating since it could be exceeded with a positive gate voltage. That is, for the deviceof
figure showing characteristics of depletion type MOSFET, the application of a voltageVGS = 4
V would result in a drain current of
mA,whichcould possiblyexceedthemaximumrating(current orpower)forthedevice.
As revealed above, the application ofa positive gate-to-source voltage has “enhanced”the
level of free carriers in the channel compared to that encountered with VGS = 0 V. Forthis
reason the region of positive gate voltages on the drain or transfer characteristics is often
referred to as the enhancement region, with the region between cutoff and the saturation level
of IDSS referred to as the depletion region.

WORKINGOFENHANCEMENTTYPEMOSFET(EMOSFET):

Fig.4.35OperationofEnhancement typeMOSFET Working

of an EMOSFET

Asitsnameindicates,thisMOSFEToperatesonlyintheenhancementmodeandhasno
depletion mode. It operates with large positive gate voltage only. It does not conduct whenthe
gate-sourcevoltage VGS =0.Thisisthe reasonthat it iscalled normally-offMOSFET.Inthese
MOSFET’s drain current ID flows only when VGS exceeds VGST [gate-to- source
threshold voltage].

When drain is applied with positive voltage with respect to source and no potential isapplied to
the gatetwo N-regions and one P-substrate fromtwo P-N junctions connected back to back with
a resistance of the P-substrate. So a very small drain current that is, reverse leakage current
flows. If the P-type substrate is now connected to the source terminal, there is zero voltage
across the source substrate junction, and the–drain- substrate junction remains reverse biased.

When the gate is made positive with respect to the source and the substrate, negative (i.e.
minority) charge carriers within the substrate are attracted to the positive gate and accumulate
close to the-surface of the substrate. As the gate voltage is increased, more andmore electrons
accumulate under the gate. Since these electrons can not flow across the insulated layer of
silicon dioxide to the gate, so they accumulate at the surface of thesubstrate just below the
gate. These accumulated minoritycharge carriers N -type channel
stretching from drain to source. When this occurs, a channel is induced by forming what is
termed an inversion layer (N-type). Now a drain current start flowing. The strength of thedrain
current depends uponthe channelresistance which, in turn, depends uponthe number of charge
carriers attracted to the positive gate. Thus drain current is controlled by the gate potential.

Since the conductivity of thechannelis enhancedby the positivebiason the gate so this
deviceisalso called the enhancement MOSFET or E- MOSFET.

The minimum value ofgate-to-source voltage VGS that is required to formthe inversion layer
(N-type)istermedthegate-to-sourcethresholdvoltageVGST.ForVGSbelowVGST,thedrain
current ID =0.But for VGS exceeding VGST anN-type inversion layer connectsthe source to
drainand the draincurrent ID is large. Depending uponthe device being used, VGSTmayvary
from less than 1 V to more than 5 V.
JFETs and DE-MOSFETs are classified as the depletion-mode devices because their
conductivity depends on the action of depletion layers. E-MOSFET is classified as an
enhancement-mode device because its conductivity depends on the action of the inversion
layer. Depletion-mode devices are normally ON when the gate-source voltage VGS = 0,
whereas the enhancement-mode devices are normally OFF when VGS =0.

CHARACTERISTICS OFANEMOSFET.

Fig.4.36CharacteristicsofEnhancementtypeMOSFETDrain

Characteristics-EMOSFET

Drain characteristics of an N-channel E-MOSFET are shown in the above figure. The lowest
curveistheVGSTcurve.WhenVGSislesserthanVGST,IDisapproximatelyzero.WhenVGS is
greater than VGST, the device turns- on and the drain current ID is controlled by the gate
voltage. The characteristic curves have almost verticaland almost horizontalparts. The almost
vertical components of the curves correspond to the ohmic region, and the horizontal
components correspond to the constant current region. Thus E-MOSFET can be operated in
either of these regions i.e. it can be used as a variable- voltage resistor (WR) or as a constant
current source.
 EMOSFET-TransferCharacteristics
The current IDSS at VGS <=0 is very small, being of the order of a few nano-amperes. When
the VGS is made positive, the drain current ID increases slowly at first, and then much more
rapidly with an increasein VGS. The equation for the transfer characteristic does not obey
equation. However it does follow a similar “square law type” ofrelationship. The equation for
the transfer characteristic of E-MOSFETs is given as: ID=K(VGS-VGST)2

Fig. 4.37 Transfer Characteristics of Enhancement type MOSFET

Handling Precautions for MOSFET

The MOSFET has the drawback of being very susceptible to overload voltage and may
require special handling during installation. The MOSFET gets damaged easily if it is not
properly handled. A very thin layer of SiO2, between the gate and channel is damaged dueto
highvoltageandevenbystaticelectricity. Thestaticelectricitymayresult fromtheslidingofa
deviceinaplasticbag.Ifapersonpicksupthetransistorbyits caseandbrushesthe gate against some
grounded objects, a large electrostatic discharge may result. In a relatively dry atmosphere, a
static potential of 300V is not uncommon on a person who hashigh resistance soles on his
footwear.
MOSFETs are protected by a shorting ring that is wrapped around all four terminals during
shipping and must remain in place untilafterthe devicessoldered inposition. priorto soldering
,the technician should use a shorting strap to discharge his static electricity and make sure that
the tip of the soldering iron is grounded. Once in circuit, there are usually low resistances
present to prevent anyexcessive accumulationofelectro static charge .However,the MOSFET
should never be inserted intoorremoved froma circuit withthe powerON.JFETisnot subject to
these restrictions, and even some MOSFETs have a built in gate protection known as “integral
gate protection”, a system built into thedevice to get around the problem of high voltage on the
gate causing a puncturing of the oxidelayer. The mannerin which thisis done is shown in the
cross sectional view of Fig.7.11.The symbol clearly shows that between each and the source is
placed a back-to- back (orfront-to-front) pair ofdiodes, which are built right into P type
substrate.
FETasVoltage-VariableResistor

FET is operated in the constant-current portion of its output characteristics for the linear
applications. Inthe region before pinch-off, where VDS is small, the drain to sourceresistance
rd can be controlled by the bias voltage VGS. The FET is useful as a voltage variable resistor
(VVR) or voltage dependent resistor (VDR).
InJFET,thedraintosourceconductancegd=ID/VDSforsmallvaluesofVDS, whichmay also
be expressed as gd=g do [1-(VGS/VP)1/2]
Where, gdo is the value of drain conductance when the bias voltage VGS is zero. The
variation of the rd with VGS can be closely approximated by the empirical expression,
rd=ro/(1-KVGS)
Where ro=drain resistance at zero gate bias, and K=a constant, dependent upon FET type.

Comparison of MOSFET and JFET

1. In enhancement and depletion types of MOSFET, the transverse electric field induced
across an insulating layer deposited on the semiconductor material controls the
conductivity of the channel. In the JFET the transverse electric field across the reverse
biased PN junction controls the conductivity ofthe channel.
2. The gate leakage current in a MOSFET is of the order of 10-12A.Hence the input
resistance of a MOSFET is very high in the order of 1010 to 1015 ohm. The gate
leakage current ofa JFET isofthe orderof10-9A and its input resistance isoftheorder of
108 ohm.
3. Theoutput characteristicsoftheJFET areflatterthanthoseoftheMOSFET and hence, the
drain resistance ofa JFET(0.1 to 1Mohm) is much higher than that ofaMOSFET(1 to 50
K ohm)
4. JFETs are operated only in the depletion mode. The depletion type MOSFET maybe
operated in both depletion and enhancement mode.
5. ComparingtoJFET,MOSFETsareeasiertofabricate.
6. MOSFET is very susceptible to overload voltage and needs special handling during
installation. It gets damaged easily if it is not properly handled.
7. MOSFEThaszerooffset voltage. Asitisasymmetricaldevice, thesourceanddraincan be
interchanged. These two properties are very useful in analog signal switching.
8. Special digital CMOS circuits are available which involves near –zero power
dissipation and very low voltage and current requirements. This makes them most
suitable for portable systems.

ComparisonofJFETandBJT

1. FET operations depend only on the flow of majority carrier-holes for P-channel FETs
and electrons for N-channel FETs. Therefore, theyare called Unipolar devices. Bipolar
transistor (BJT) operation depends on both minority and majoritycurrent carrier.
2. As FET has no junctions and the conduction is through an N-type or P-type
semiconductor material, FET is less noisy than BJT.
 3. As the input circuit of FET is reverse biased, FET exhibits as much higher input
impedance (in theorderof100MOHM) and lower output impedance andthere willbe a
highdegree of isolation between input and output. So, FET can act as excellentbuffer
amplifier but the BJT has low input impedance because its input circuit is forward
biased.
4. FET is a voltage control device, i.e. voltage at the input terminal controls the output
current, whereasBJTisacurrent controldevice, i.e.theinputcurrent controlstheoutput
current.
5. FETs are much easier to fabricate and are particularly suitable for ICs because they
occupy less space than BJTs.
6. The performance of BJT is degraded by neutron radiations because of reduction in
minority carrier life time, whereas FET can tolerate a much higher level of radiation
since they do not rely on minority carrier for their operation.
7. The performance of FET is relatively unaffected byambient temperature changes.As it
has a negative temperature coefficient at high current levels, it prevents the FET from
thermal break down. The BJT has a positive temperature coefficient at high current
levels which leads to thermal break down.
8. Since FET does not suffer from minority carrier storage effects, it has a higher
switching speeds and cut off frequencies.BJT suffers a minority carrier storage effects
and therefore has lower switching speed and cut off frequencies.
9. FET amplifiers have low gain bandwidth product due to the junction capacitive effects
and produce more signal distortion except for small signal operation.
10. BJTarecheapertoproducethanFETs.

SiliconControlledRectifier(SCR)

A silicon controlled rectifier is a semiconductor device that acts as a true electronic

switch.It canchangealternatingcurrent intodirect current andatthesametimecan controlthe
amount ofpower fed tothe load. Thus SCR combines the featuresofa rectifierand a transistor.

Constructionaldetails.

Fig.4.38SCR

Whena PN junction is added to ajunctiontransistor, the resulting three pn junction device is

called a silicon controlled rectifier. Fig. I shows its construction. It is clear that it is essentially
an ordinary rectifier (pn) and a junction transistor (npn) combined in one unit to form pnpn
device. Three terminals are taken; one from the outer p-type material called anode A, second
from the outer n-type material called cathode K and the third fromthe base of transistor section
and is called gate
G. In the normal operating conditions of SCR, anode is held at high positive potential with
respecttocathodeandgateatsmallpositivepotentialwithrespecttocathode.Fig.(ii)
shows the symbol of SCR. The silicon controlled rectifier is a solid state equivalent of
thyratron. The gate, anode and cathode of SCR correspond to the grid, plate and cathodeof
thyratron. For this reason, SCR is sometimes called thyristor.

Working ofSCR

Inasiliconcontrolledrectifier, load isconnectedinserieswithanode.Theanodeisalwayskept at

positivepotential w.r.t.cathode.Theworking ofSCR canbestudied underthefollowing two heads:
When gate is open. The below diagram shows that the SCR circuit with gate open i.e. no
voltage applied to the gate. Under this condition, junction J2 is reverse biased while junctions
J1 and J3 are forward biased. Hence, the situation in the junctions J1 and J3 is just asinanpn
transistor with base open. Consequently, no current flows through the loadRL and the SCR.
However, if the applied voltage is gradually increased, a stage is reachedwhen reverse biased
junctionJ2 breaks down. The SCR now conductsheavilyand is saidto be inthe ON state. The
applied voltage at which SCR conducts heavily without gate voltage is called Break over
voltage.

Fig.4.39OperationofSCR

(i)Whengateispositivew.r.t.cathode.

The SCR can be made to conduct heavily at smaller applied voltage by applying
asmallpositivepotentialtothegateasshowninNow junctionJ3 is forwardbiasedand junction J2 is
reverse biased. The electrons from n-type material start moving across junction J3 towards left
whereas holes from p-type towards the right. Consequently, the electrons from junctionJ3are
attracted across junctionJ2 and gate current starts flowing.As soon as the gate current flows,
anode current increases. The increased anode current in turn makes more electrons available at
junction J2. This process continues and in an extremely small time, junction J2 breaks down
and the SCR starts conducting heavily.
OnceSCRstartsconducting,thegate(thereasonforthisnameisobvious)losesallcontrol.Even if gate
voltage is removed, the anode current does not decrease at all. The only way to stop
conduction (i.e. bring SCR inoffcondition) istoreduce theapplied voltageto zero.

ThewholeappliedvoltageVappearsasreversebiasacrossjunctionJ2asjunctionsJ1andJ3are forward
biased. Because J1 and J3 are forward biased and J2 has broken down.

Conclusion. The following conclusions are drawn from the working of SCR : An SCR hastwo
states i.e. either it does not conduct or it conducts heavily. There is no state in between.
Therefore, SCRbehaves likeaswitch.Therearetwo waystoturnontheSCR. Thefirstmethod is to
keep the gate open and make the supply voltage equal to the breakover voltage. The second
methodistooperateSCRwithsupplyvoltage lessthanbreakover voltageandthenturn it on by
means ofa small voltage ( typically 1.5 V, 30 mA) applied tothe gate.Applying small positive
voltagetothegateisthenormalwaytoclose anSCR becausethe breakover voltage is usually much
greater than supply voltage.To open the SCR (i.e. to make it non- conducting ), reduce the
supply voltage to zero.

VICHARACTERISTICS OFSCR:

Fig.4.40V-IcharacteristicsofSCR

The V-I characteristicsofthe SCRrevealthat the SCRcan be operated inthree modes. Forward
blocking mode(offstate) Forwardconduction mode (onstate) Reverse blockingmode(offstate)
Forward blocking mode
In this mode of operation, the anode is given a positive potential while the cathode is
given a negative voltage, keeping the gate at zero potential i.e. disconnected. In this case
junction J1 and J3 are forward biased while J2 is reversed biased due to which only a small
leakage current exists from the anode to the cathode until the applied voltage reaches its
breakover value, at which J2 undergoes avalanche breakdown and at this breakover voltage it
starts conducting, but below breakover voltage it offers very high resistance to the current and
is said to be in the off state.
Forwardconductionmode

SCR can be brought from blocking mode to conduction mode in two ways: either byincreasing
the voltage across anode to cathode beyond break over voltage or by applying of positive pulse
at gate.Once it startsconducting, no more gatevoltage isrequired to maintainit in the on state.
There are two ways to turn it off: 1. Reduce the current throughit below a minimum value
called the holding current and 2. WiththeGateturned off, shortout the Anode and Cathode
momentarily with a push- button switch or transistor across the junction.

Reverseblocking mode

In this mode SCR is reversed biased , ie when anode is negative compared to cathode. The
characteristicofthisregionare similartothoseofanordinaryPNjunctiondiode.inthisregion
,junctionJ1andJ3arereversedbiasedwhereasj2is farwardbiased

.the device behaves as if two diodes are connected in series with a reverse voltage applied to
them. Asmallleakagecurrent oftheorderof millamperes ormicro amperes flow inthedevice.
Thisreverse blocking mode iscalledtheOFFstateofthethyristor.whenthe reversevoltageof the
SCR increases to a large extent breakdown occurs and the current in the device increases
rapidly. Thus when the SCR is biased in this region the power dissipated is very high, if the
powerdissipatedismorethantheratedvalueof theSCR,theSCRispermanentlydamaged
.thusinthereversebiasconditionthevoltageshouldnevercrossthebreakdown voltage.

CharacteristicsofSCR
It is the curve between anode-cathode voltage (V) and anode current (I)of an SCR at constant
gate current

Forwardcharacteristics.

When anode is positive w.r.t. cathode, the curve between V and I is called the forward
characteristic. In the above fig, OABC is the forward characteristic of SCR at IG = 0.If the
supply voltage is increased from zero, a point is reached (point A) when the SCR starts
conducting. Under this condition, the voltage across SCR suddenly drops as shown by dotted
curve AB and most of supply voltage appears across the load resistance RL. If proper gate
current is made to flow,SCR can close at much smaller supply voltage.

Reversecharacteristics.
When anode is negative w.r.t. cathode, the curve between V and I is known as reverse
characteristic. The reverse voltage does come across SCR when it is operated witha.c.supply.
If the reverse voltage is gradually increased, at first the anode current remains small
(i.e.leakage current) and at some reverse voltage, avalanche breakdown occurs andthe SCR
starts conducting heavily in the reverse direction as shown by the curve DE. Thismaximum
reverse voltage at which SCR starts conducting heavily is known as reverse breakdownvoltage.
 EQUIVALENTCIRCUITOFSCR

TheSCRshowninFig.20.4(i)canbevisualisedasseparatedintotwotransistorsasshownin

Fig. 4.41EquivalentcircuitofSCR

Thus, theequivalent circuit ofSCR iscomposedofpnptransistorand npntransistor connected

asshownintheabove fig. It isclear that collectorofeachtransistoriscoupledtothebaseofthe other,
thereby making a positive feedback loop. The working of SCR canbe easily explained from its
equivalent circuit. The above fig shows the equivalent circuit of SCR with supply voltage V
and load resistance RL. Assume the supply voltage V is less than break over voltage as is
usually the case.
With gate open (i.e. switch S open), there is no base current in transistor T2. Therefore, no
current flows in the collectorof T2 and hence that of T1. Under such conditions, the

Fig. 4.42EquivalentcircuitofSCR– TwoTransistormodel

SCRisopen.However,ifswitchSisclosed,asmallgatecurrentwillflowthroughthebaseof
T2 whichmeans its collector current will
increase.

The collector current of T2 is the base current of T1.Therefore, collector current of T1

increases. But collectorcurrentofT1isthebasecurrent ofT2.Thisactionisaccumulativesince an
increase of currentin one transistor causes an increase of currentin the othertransistor. As
aresult ofthisaction, bothtransistorsaredrivento saturation, and heavy current flowsthrough the
load RL. Under such conditions, the SCR closes.
APPLICATIONS

SCRsareusedinmanyareasofelectronicswheretheyfindusesinavarietyofdifferent applications. Some of

the more common applications for them are outlined below:
• ACpowercontrol(includinglights,motors,etc).
• Overvoltageprotection crowbarforpowersupplies.
• ACpowerswitching.
• Controlelementsinphaseangletriggeredcontrollers.
• Withinphotographicflashlightswheretheyactastheswitchtodischargea stored
voltage throughthe flash lamp, and then cut it off at the required time.

Thyristors are able to switch high voltages and withstand reverse voltages making them ideal
for switching applications, especially within AC scenarios.

UNIJUNCTIONTRANSISTOR(UJT)

A unijunction transistor (abbreviated as UJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor

switching device. This device has a unique characteristic that when it is triggered, the emitter
current increases regeneratively until it is limited by emitter power supply. Due to this
characteristic, the unijunction transistor can be employed in a variety of applications e.g.,
switching, pulse generator, saw-tooth generator etc

CONSTRUCTION.

Fig.4.43UJT

The above Fig shows the basic structure of a unijunction transistor. It consists of an n-type
silicon bar with an electrical connection on each end. The lead to these connections arecalled
base leads base-one B1 and base two B2. Part way along the bar between thetwobases, nearer
to B2 than B1, a pn junction is formed between a p-type emitter and the bar.The lead to this
junction is called the emitter lead E. Fig shows the symbol of unijunction transistor. Note that
emitter is shown closer to B2 than B1.
i)Since the device has one pn junction and three leads, it is commonly called a unijunction
transistor (uni means single).

Withonlyonepn-junction, thedevice isreallya formofdiode. Becausethetwo base terminals are

taken from one section of the diode, this device is also called double-based diode.

The emitter is heavily doped having many holes. The n region, however, is lightlydoped. For
thisreason,theresistancebetweenthebaseterminalsisveryhigh(5to10kΩ)whenemitter
leadisopen.
WORKINGPRINCIPLEOF UJT

Fig.4.44OperationofUJT
The above fig shows the basic circuit operation of a unijunction transistor. The device has
normally B2 positive w.r.t. B1.If voltage VBB is applied between B2 and B1 with emitter
open, a voltage gradient is established along the n-type bar. Since the emitter is located nearer
to B2, more than half of VBB appears between the emitter and B1. The voltage V1between
emitter and B1 establishes a reverse bias on the pn junction and the emittercurrent is cut off. Of
course, a small leakage current flows from B2 to emitter dueto minority carriers.
Ifa positive voltage is applied at the emitter,the pnjunction willremain reverse biased solong as
the input voltage is less than V1. If the input voltage to the emitter exceeds V1, thepn junction
becomes forward biased. Under these conditions, holes are injected from p- type material into
the n-type bar. These holes are repelled by positive B2 terminal and theyare
attractedtowardsB1terminalofthe bar. This accumulationofholes inthe emitter toB1region
results inthe decrease ofresistance in this section ofthe bar. The result is that internal voltage
dropfromemitterto B1 isdecreased and hence the emittercurrent IE increases. Asmoreholes are
injected, a condition of saturation will eventually be reached.At this point, the emitter current
is limited by emitter power supply only. The device is nowin the ONstate.
If a negative pulse is applied to the emitter, the pn junction is reverse biased and the emitter
current is cut off. The device is then said to be in the OFF state.

Intrinsicstandoffratio:

Foreaseofunderstanding,theinternalmodeloftheUJTisused inthecircuit.B2terminalofthe UJT is

made positive with respect to B1 terminal using the voltage source Vbb. Emitter terminal E of
the UJT is forward biased using the voltage source Ve. Current starts flowinginto the emitter
only when the bias voltage Ve has exceeded the forward drop of the internal diode(Vd)plusthe
voltagedropacrossRB1(Vrb1).Thiscondition canbe expressed usingthe following equation.

Ve =Vd +Vrb1

Vrb1=Vbb*(RB1/(RB1+RB2))

Consideringtheintrinsicstandoffratioƞ=RB1/(RB1+RB2),theequationbecomes

Ve=Vd+ƞ·Vbb

A typical silicon diode has a forward voltage drop of 0.7V. When this factor is considered,the
equation can be re written as
Ve=0.7V+ƞ·Vbb

CHARACTERISTICSOFUJT

Fig.4.45CharacteristicsofUJT

The above Fig. shows the curve between emitter voltage (VE) and emitter current
(IE)ofaUJTatagivenvoltageVBBbetweenthebases.Thisisknownastheemitter
characteristicof UJT. The following points may be noted from the characteristics :
(I)Initially, in the cut-off region, as VE increases from zero, slight leakage current
flows fromterminalB2to theemitter. Thiscurrent isduetotheminoritycarriers in the
reversebiased diode.
Above a certain value of VE, forward IE begins to flow, increasing until the peak
voltage VP and current IP are reached at point P.
After the peak point P, an attempt to increase VE is followed by a sudden increase
in emitter current IE with a corresponding decrease in VE. This is a negative
resistance portion of the curve because with increase in IE, VE decreases. The
device, therefore, hasa negativeresistance regionwhich isstableenoughto beused
with a great deal of reliability in many areas e.g., trigger circuits, sawtooth
generators, timing circuits.

ADVANTAGESOFUJT

The UJT was introduced in 1948 but did not become commercially available until
1952.Since then, the device has achieved great popularity due to the following
reasons :

o Itisalowcostdevice.
o Ithasexcellentcharacteristics.
o Itisa low-powerabsorbingdeviceundernormal
operatingconditions.
APPLICATIONSOFUJT

Due to above reasons, thisdevice is being used in a varietyofapplications. A few include

oscillators, trigger circuits, saw- tooth generators, bistable network etc.
TheUJTisverypopulartodaymainlyduetoitshighswitchingspeed.
 AfewselectedapplicationsoftheUJTareasfollows:
ItisusedtotriggerSCRsandTRIACsItisusedinnon-sinusoidaloscillators
Itisused inphasecontrolandtimingcircuitsIt isused insawtooth generatorsIt is
used in oscillator circuit design.

QUESTIONS
PART A
1. Whatisasemiconductor?
2. MentiontheapplicationofPNjunctiondiode.
3. WhatisaZener diode?
4. Listthethreeconfigurationoftransistor.
5. Defineαandβ.
6. Whatisa FET?
7. ListtwoapplicationsofJFET andSCR.
8. WhatisaSCR?Givetwoapplicationsofit.

PARTB
1. ExplaintheV-IcharacteristicsofPNjunctiondiode.
2. DrawthecircuitsymbolforMOSFETandexplainitscharacteristics.
3. Explaintheapplicationofthefollowingdevices,
(a) UJT
(b) FET
4. ExplaintheworkingprincipleandV-I characteristicsofZener diode.
5. WhatisaSCR?Explainitscharacteristics.
6. Drawthecircuitdiagramofatransistor.Explainindetailthetransistorconfiguration.

TEXT/REFERENCEBOOKS

1. Dr.SanjaySharma,ElectronicDevicesandCircuits,2ndedition,S.K.Kataria&Sons
,2012.
2.G.K.Mithal,BasicElectronicDevicesandcircuits,2ndEdition, G.K.Publishers
Pvt,2008
3.SmarajitGhosh,FundamentalsofElectricalandElectronicsEngineering,2nd Edition,
PHI Learning Private Ltd, 2010.

42
 SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
DEPARTMENTOFELECTRICALANDELECTRONICS

BASICELECTRICALANDELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING-SEEA1101
UNIT–5DIGITALELECTRONICS

1
 UNITV-DIGITALELECTRONICS

Number systems – Binary arithmetic - Boolean algebra, laws & theorems – Boolean Functions - Simplification of
Boolean functions - Logic gates - Implementation of Boolean expressions using logic gate - Standard forms of
Boolean expression.

NumberSystem
A number system relates quantities and symbols. In digital system how information is represented is key
and there are different radices, i.e. number bases, whicha numbering systemcanuse.
Digitalcomputer
Anyclassofdevicescapableofsolvingproblems byprocessing informationindiscreteform. Itoperateson data,
including letters and symbols, which are expressed in binaryformi.e using onlytwo digits 0 and 1.
Theblock diagramofdigitalcomputerisgivenbelow:

Processor (or)
ControlUnit Arithmeticunit

Storage (or)
MemoryUnit

Input Output
Devicesand Devicesand
Control Control
The memory unit stores programs as well as input, output and intermediate data. The processor unit
performs arithmetic and other data processing tasks as specified by the program.The control unit
supervises the flow of information between various units. The program and data prepared by the user
are transferred into the memory unit by means of an input device such as punch card reader (or) tele
typewriter. An output device, such as printer, receives the result of the computations and the printed
results are presented to the user.
NumberRepresentation:
It can have different base values like: binary (base-2), octal (base-8), decimal (base 10)and hexadecimal
(base 16),here the base number represents the number of digits used in that numbering
system.Asanexample,indecimalnumbering systemthedigitsusedare:0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8and9.
Thereforethedigitsforbinaryare:0and1,thedigitsforoctalare:0,1,2,3,4,5,6and7.Forthe
hexadecimalnumbering system,base16,thedigits are:0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.

2
 It can have different base values like: binary (base-2), octal (base-8), decimal (base 10) and
hexadecimal (base 16),here thebase number represents the number of digits used in that numbering
system.Asanexample,indecimalnumberingsystemthedigitsusedare:0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8and9.
Thereforethedigitsforbinaryare:0and1,thedigitsforoctalare:0,1,2,3,4,5,6and7.Forthe
hexadecimalnumberingsystem, base16,the digitsare:0,1, 2,3,4, 5,6,7,8,9,A, B,C,D, E,F.
2. Binary numbers
Numbers that contain only two digit 0 and 1 are called Binary Numbers. Each 0 or 1 is called a Bit,
frombinarydigit. A binary number of 4 bits is called a Nibble. A binary number of 8 bits is called a
Byte. A binarynumberof16 bits is called a Word on somesystems, on others a 32-bit numberis called a
Word while a 16-bit number is called a Halfword.
Using2bit0and1toform
abinarynumberof 1 bit,numbers are 0 and 1
abinarynumberof 2 bit,numbers are 00, 01, 10,11
abinarynumberof 3bit, such numbers are000,001, 010, 011, 100,101, 110, 111
abinarynumberof 4 bit, such numbers are0000,0001, 0010,0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111, 1000,
1001,1010,1011, 1100,1101,1110,1111
Therefore, usingn bitsthereare2nbinarynumbers ofn bits
Eachdigitinabinarynumberhasavalueorweight.TheLSBhasavalueof1.Thesecondfromtheright has a value
of 2, the next 4 , etc.,

16 8 4 2 1

24 23 22 21 20

Thebinaryequivalent for somedecimalnumbersaregiven below.

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Binary 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011

3. NumberBase Conversions
3.1Conversion ofdecimal numberto anynumbersystem
Step 1 convert the integer part by doing successive division using the radix of asked number systems.
Step2convertthefractionalpartbydoingsuccessivemultiplicationusingradix ofaskednumbersystem

3.2Conversionofdecimaltobinarynumbersystem The
radix of asked number system is 2
Convert 8710to ()2
 ( 1010111)2

Convert(14.625)10decimal numberto binarynumber

MSB
(1110)2
1stMultiplicationIteration
Multiply 0.625 by 2
0.625 x2 =1.25(Product) Fractionalpart=0.25 Carry=1 (MSB)

2ndMultiplicationIteration
Multiply 0.25 by 2
0.25 x2 =0.50(Product) Fractionalpart=0.50 Carry=0

3rdMultiplicationIteration
Multiply 0.50 by 2
0.50 x2 =1.00(Product) Fractionalpart=1.00 Carry=1(LSB)
(101)2
Thebinarynumberof(16.625)10is(1110.101)2

3.3Conversionofdecimaltooctalnumbersystem The
radix of asked number system is 8
Convert(264)10 decimalnumbertooctalnumber

(410)8
Theoctalnumberof(264)10is (410)8
 Convert(105.589)10 decimalnumbertooctalnumber

1 MSB

LSB (151)

MSB

LSB ( 0.4554)
Theoctalnumberof(105.589)10is (151.4554)8

3.4ConversionofdecimaltoHexadecimalnumbersystem The
radix of asked number system is 16
Convert(1693)10decimalnumbertoHexadecimalnumber
1693/16= 105 Reminder(13)D(LSB)
105/16=6 Reminder 9
6/16= 0 Reminder 6(MSB)

(1693)10 (69D)16
Convert(1693.0628)10decimalfractiontohexadecimalfraction(?)16
1693/16= 105 Reminder(13)D(LSB)
105/16=6 Reminder 9
6/16= 0 Reminder 6(MSB)
(69D)

Multiply0.0628by16
0.0628 x 16 = 1.0048(Product) Fractional part=0.0048Carry=1 (MSB)
Multiply 0.0048 by 16
0.0048 x16 =0.0768(Product) Fractionalpart=0.0768 Carry=0
Multiply0.0768by16
0.0768 x16 =1.2288(Product) Fractionalpart=0.2288 Carry=1

Multiply0.2288by16
0.2288 x16 =3.6608(Product) Fractionalpart=0.6608 Carry=3(LSB)
(.1013)

(1693.0628)10=(69D.1013)16

3.5Conversion ofanynumbersystem todecimalnumbersystem

Ingeneralthenumbers canberepresentedas
N=An-1rn-1+=An-2rn-2+……..+A1 r1 +A0 r0 +A-1 r-1+A-2r-2+………
Wheren=numberindecimal
A= digit
r=radixofnumber system
n= The number of digits in the integer portion of number
m=thenumberofdigitsinthefractionalportionofnumber

3.6ConversionofbinarytodecimalnumbersystemCon
vert ( 101.101 )2= ( ? )10

101.101
=1 x22+0x21+1x20.1 x2-1+0x2-2+1x2-3

=1 x4 +0 x2 +1x1 .1 x(1 / 2 ) +0 x(1 / 4 )+1 x(1 / 8 )

=4 +0+1.( 1 / 2 )+0+( 1 / 8 )

=5+0.5+0.125
=5 . 625
Therefore(1 01. 10 1)2=( 5.625)10

3.7ConversionofoctaltodecimalnumbersystemConve
rt (128)8= ( ? )10
1238=1*82+2*81+3*80=64 +16 +3 =73
thedecimalequivalentofthenumber1238is7310 Convert (2
1. 2 1)8= (? )10
2 1. 2 1
=2 x81+1x80.2x8-1+1 x8-2
=2 x8 +1 x1.2x(1 /8 ) +1 x(1 / 64 )
=16 +1.(0. 25)+(0.0 1 5 6 2 5)
=17 +0. 265625
=17.265625
Therefore(21. 21)8=(17. 2 65 6 25)10

3.8Conversionofhexadecimaltodecimalnumber system

Convert(E F.B1)16=(?)10

=E x161+Fx160.Bx16-1+1 x16-2
=14 x16 +15 x1.11x(1 / 16) +1 x(1 / 256)
=224+ 15 +(0. 687 5) +(0. 00 3 9 0 6 2 5)
=239 +0. 6914
=239. 691406
Therefore(EF.B1)16=(239.691406)10 Convert (

0.9D9 )16= ( ? )10

=0 x160.9x16-1 +Dx16-2 +9 x16-3

=0 x1.9x(1 / 16 )+13 x(1 / 256 )+9 x(1 /4096 )
=0.(0. 5625)+(0. 050781)+(0. 0021972 )
=0.(0. 6154782 )
=0. 6154782

3.9ConversionofbinarytooctalnumbersystemConvert
(101101001)2 to ()8
Divide the binaryinto group of three digits from LSB we will find the following pattern
101|101|001Nowwritingtheequivalentdecimalnumberofeachgroupweget5|5|1Sothe equivalent
octal number is 5518

Convert11001100.101to()8011|00
1|100. |101|
3 1 4. 5
Sotheequivalent octalnumberis314.5

3.10 Conversionofbinarytohexadecimalnumbersystem
Convert 111100010 to ()16
DividethebinaryintogroupoffourdigitsfromLSB
0001|1110|0010
Nowwritingtheequivalenthexadecimalnumberofeachgroup
1|E|2
SotheequivalentHexadecimalnumberis1E216 Convert
11000011001.101 to ()16
0110|0001|1001|.1010|
6 1 9 .A
SotheequivalentHexadecimalnumberis619.A16

3.11Conversionofoctalnumbersystemtohexadecimalnumbersystem Convert(
25)8to()16
Firstconvertoctalto binary
Thebinaryequivalentof25is010101
DividethebinaryintogroupoffourdigitsfromLSB
0001|0101
1 5
SotheequivalentHexadecimalnumberis1516

Conversionofhexadecimalnumbersystemtooctalnumbersystem
Convert( 1A.2B)16to()8
Firstconverthexadecimalto binary
Thebinaryequivalentof1A.2Bis00011010.00101011 Divide
the binaryinto group of Three digits 011|010|.|001|010|110
3 2 .1 26
sotheequivalentoctal numberis32.1268

4. COMPLEMENTS
Indigitalcomputerstosimplifythesubtractionoperationandforlogicalmanipulationcomplements
areused.Therearetwotypesofcomplementsforeachradixsystemtheradixcomplementanddiminished radix
complement. The first is referred to as the r’s complement and the second as the (r-1)’s complement.
r’sComplement
GivenapositivenumberNin base rwith anintegerpart ofndigits, ther’scomplement of Nis
definedasrn-NifN≠0and0ifN=0
 (r-1)’sComplement

GivenapositivenumberNinbaserwithanintegerpartofndigitsandafractionpartofm digits, the

(r-1)’s complement of N is defined as rn-r-m-N

Subtractionwithr’s complement

• Thedirectmethodofsubtractionusestheborrow concept
• Whensubtractionisimplementedbymeansofdigitalcomponents,thismethodisfoundtobe less
efficient. So, instead the following procedure can be followed.

Thesubtractionoftwopositivenumbers(M-N),bothofbaser,maybedoneasfollows.

(1) AddtheminuendMtother’scomplementofthesubtrahendN.
(2) Inspecttheresultobtainedinstep1foranend carry.
• Ifanend-carryoccurs,discardit.
• Ifanend-carrydoesnotoccurs,takether’scomplementofthenumberobtainedinstep 1 and
place a negative sign in front.

Subtractionwith(r-1)’s Complement

• Theprocedureforsubtractionwith (r-1)’s complementissameasr’scomplementexcept for

end-aroundcarry.
• ThesubtractionofM-N,bothpositivenumbersinbaser,maybecalculated inthefollowing manner.
1. AddtheminuendMtothe (r-1)’scomplementofthesubtrahendN.
2. Inspecttheresultobtainedinstep1foranendcarry.
• Ifanend-carryoccurs,add1totheleastsignificantdigit(end-around carry)
• If anend-carrydoesnot occur,takethe(r-1)’s complementofthenumber
obtainedinstep1andplace anegativesigninfront.

It is classified into four types they are 1’s complement , 2’s complement , 9’s
complementand10’s complement.
1’s complement representation: The1’scomplementofabinarynumberisthenumberthat
results when we change all 1’s to zeros and the zeros to ones.
2’scomplementrepresentation:
The2’scomplement is thebinarynumberthat resultswhen weadd 1to the1’scomplement.
Problemsrelatedto1’scomplementand2’scomplement:
 1’scomplementsubtraction
Subtractionofbinarynumberscanbeaccomplishedbythedirectmethodbyusingthe1’s complement
method,whichallowstoperformsubtractionusingonlyaddition.forsubtractionoftwonumberswehave two
cases.
1. Subtractionofsmallernumberfromlargernumberand
2. Subtractionoflargernumberfromsmallernumber.

1’scomplementSubtractionofsmallernumberfromlargernumber

Method:
1. Determinethe1’scomplementofthesmallernumber.
2. Addthe1’scomplementtothelargernumber.
3. Removethecarryandaddittotheresult.
This is called end -around carry.
1’scomplementSubtractionoflargernumberfromsmallernumber
Method:
1. Determinethe1’scomplementofthelargernumber.
2. Addthe1’scomplementtothesmaller number.
3. Answerisin1’scomplementform.Togettheanswerintrueformtakethe1’scomplement and
assignnegativesigntothe answer.

Advantagesof1’scomplementsubtraction:
1. The1’scomplement subtractioncanbeaccomplishedwithan binaryadder. Therefore,thismethod
isusefulinarithmeticlogic circuits.
2. The1’scomplement ofanumberiseasilyobtained byinvertingeach bit inthe number.
2’scomplementSubtraction:
Like1’scomplementsubtraction,in2’scomplementsubtraction,thesubtractionisaccomplished
byonlyaddition.
2’scomplementSubtractionofsmallernumberfromlargernumber
Method
1. Determinethe2’scomplementofthesmallernumber.
2. Addthe2’scomplementtothelarger number.
3. Discardthe carry.

2’scomplementSubtractionoflargernumberfromsmallernumber
Method:

1. Determinethe2’scomplementofthelargernumber.
2. Addthe2’scomplementtothesmaller number.
 3. Answerisin2’scomplement form.Togettheanswerintrueformtakethe2’scomplement and
assignnegativesigntothe answer.

9'scomplementand10'scomplement
Before knowing about 9's complement and 10's complement we should know why they are used
andwhytheirconcept cameintoexistence.Additionofsigned BCDnumberscanbeperformedbyusing
9’sand10’scomplement.Thecomplementsareusedtomakethearithmeticoperationsindigitalsystem easier.
Various topics and related problems we going to see here are

1. 9scomplement
2. 10scomplement
3. 9scomplement subtraction
4. 10scomplementsubtraction

Now first of all let us know what 9's complement is and how it is done. To obtain the 9,s complementof
anynumber we have to subtract the number with (10n - 1) where n = number of digits in the number, or in a
simpler manner we have to divide each digit of the given decimal number with 9. The table 1.will explain
the 9's complement more easily.

Table1. 9’scomplementequivalentfordecimalonumbers

9scompleme
Decimaldigit
nt

0 9
1 8
2 7
3 6
4 5
5 4
6 3
7 2
8 1
9 0
 Now coming to 10's complement, it is relatively easy to find out the 10's complement after finding
out the 9,s complement of that number. We have to add 1 with the 9,s complement of anynumber to obtain
thedesired 10's complementofthatnumber.Orif wewanttofind outthe10's complementdirectly, wecan do it by
following the formula, (10n - number), where n = number of digits in the number. An example is given
below to illustrate the concept of obtaining 10’s complement

Adecimalnumber456,find9'scomplementand10’scomplementofthis number

10'scomplementofthat no.is

In 9’s complement subtraction when 9’s complement of smaller number number is added to the
larger number carryis generated. It is necessaryto add this carryto the result. ( this is called an end around
carry).when larger number is subtracted from the smaller number, there is no carry, and the result is in 9’s
compliment form and negative. This is explained with following examples.

Subtractionusing9’s complements:

Stepsfor9’scomplementBCDsubtraction

1. Findthe9’scomplementofanegative number.
2. AddtwonumbersusingBCDaddition
3. If carryisgenerated addcarryto the result otherwise findthe9’scomplement ofthe result.
Subtractionusing10’scomplements:
The 10’s complement of the decimal is equal to 9’s complement plus 1. The 10’s complement can
be used to perform subtraction by adding the minuend to the 10’s complement of the subtrahend and
dropping the carry. This is explained with following examples.
 Stepsfor10’scomplementBCDsubtraction
1. Findthe10’scomplementofanegativenumber.
2. AddtwonumbersusingBCDaddition
3. Ifcarryisnotgeneratedfindthe10’scomplementofthe result.

5. SIGNEDNUMBERS

• Digitalsystemslikecomputer,mustbeabletohandlebothpositiveandnegative numbers.
• Asignedbinarynumberconsistsofbothsignand magnitude information.
• Thesignindicateswhetheranumberispositiveornegative.

Representation

Therearethreeformsinwhichthesigned integer(wholenumbers)canberepresented.They
include,

1. Sign–MagnitudeForm – Rarelyused
2. 1’sComplementForm
3. 2’sComplementForm–Mostlyused

Note:

Signbit –leftmostbitin asigned binarynumbers

• 0forpositive,1 for negative

SignMagnitudeForm
• Here,leftmostbitisthesignbit.
• Remainingbits aremagnitudebits.
• Magnitudebitsareintrue binary.

1’sComplementForm
• InthisForm,positivenumbersarerepresentedthesamewayaspositivesign-magnitude
numbers.
 • Negativenumbers,arethe1’scomplementofthe correspondingpositive numbers.

(eg)

+25isrepresentedas,

00011001→sameassign-magnitudeform

-25isrepresentedas,

11100110→1’scomplementof +25

2’sComplementForm
• Positivenumbersin2’scomplementformarerepresentedassameasinsign-
magnitude and 1’s Complement Form.
• Negativenumbersarethe2’scomplementofthe correspondingpositive numbers

(eg)

+25isrepresentedas,

00011001→sameassign-magnitudeform

-25isrepresentedas, 11100110

111001112→2’scomplement of +25

DecimalvalueofSignedNumbers

(1) SignMagnitude
• Decimalvaluesofpositiveandnegativenumbersinthisformaredeterminedby
summing the weights in all the magnitude – bit positions.
• Thesign is determined byexaminingthe sign bit.

(eg)1.Determinethe decimalvalueofthis signedbinarynumberexpressedinsign –

magnitude.10010101
Soln:
• Thesevenmagnitudebitsandtheirpowersof2weightsareasfollows. 1
0010101
↓26252423222120
Signbit
• Summingweightswherethereare1’s.
→16+4+1=21
• Since,thesignbitis1,thedecimalnumberis -21
 (2) 1’sComplement
• Decimalvaluesofpositivenumbersinthisformaredeterminedbysummingthe
weights in all bit postions.
• Decimalvaluesofnegativenumbersaredeterminedbyassigninganegativevalueto the
weight of the sign bit, summing all the weights where there are 1’s and adding 1 to the
result.

(eg)Determinethedecimal valueof thesigned binarynumber expressedin 1’s complement

11101000

Soln:

• Thebitsandtheirpowers-of-twoweightsareasfollows.

Note:for sign bit, it is -27 (or) -128

1110100 0

-2726252423 222120

• Summingthe weightswherethereare1’s

-128+64+32+8=-24 (if+ve, writethisastheresult)

• Since,itisa negativenumber,add1 tothe result
-24+1=-23
(3) 2’sComplement
• Decimalvaluesofpositiveandneagativenumbersinthisformaredeterminedby
summing the weights in all bit positions.
• Theweightof thesign –bit inanegativenumberisgiven anegativevalue.

(eg):Determinethedecimalvaluesofthesignedbinarynumbersexpressedin2’scomplement
from10101010

Soln:

• Thebitsandtheircorrespondingpowersof-2weightsareasfollows

1 01010 10
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
-2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
• Summingweightswherethereare1’s
-128+32+8+2=-86

Rangeofsignedinteger numbersthatcanbe Represented

• Since8-bit(1byte)groupingiscommoninmostcomputers,theillustrationsareall8- bits.
With 8-bits, we can represent 256 different numbers.
• With16-bits(2bytes), wecanrepresent65,536differentnumbers.
• With32-bits(4bytes), wecanrepresent4.295×109differentnumbers.
 Theformulaforfindingthenumberofdifferentcombinationsofn-bitsis,

Totalcombinations =2n
Rangeofvaluesforn-bitnumbersis,

-(2n-1)to+(2n-1– 1)

So,for8bitstherangeis,
-128to+127

For16bitstherangeis,
-32768to+32767etc

ArithmeticoperationswithSignedNumbers

• Here,weuse2’scomplementrepresentation

Addition

• Thetwonumbers inanaddition aretheaddendandthe augend

• Theresultis sum.
• Therearefourcasesthat canoccurwhentwosignedbinarynumbers are added.
(1) Bothnumberspositive.
(2) Positivenumberwithmagnitudelargerthannegative number.
(3) Negativenumberwithmagnitudelargerthanpositivenumber
(4) Bothnumbersnegative.

Case1:Bothnumbers+ve
Subtraction

• Itisaspecialcaseof addition.
• Thetwonumbersinsubtractionaresubtrahendandminuend.
• Theresult isthedifference.
• Tosubtract+6 from+9,it isalso equivalenttoadd-6to +9.
• So,tosubtracttwosigned numbers,takethe2’scomplement ofthesubtrahendandadd. Discard
anyfinal carrybit.

6. BINARYARITHMETIC
BINARYADDITION
Thebinaryaddition tableis asfollows:
A+B SUM CARRY
0+0 0 0
0+1 1 0
1+0 1 0
1+1 0 1
Illustration1:
Add(1010)2 and(0011)2
1010 (Augend)
0011 (Addend)

1101 (sum)

Theadditionmanipulatedaboveasfollows.
Step1:Theleastsignificantbitsareadded,i.e.0+1=1withacarryof0
Step2:Thecarryinthepreviousisaddedtothenexthighersignificantbits,i.e.0+1+1=0withacarry1.
Step3:Thecarryinthepreviousisaddedtothenexthighersignificantbits,i.e. 1+0+0=1withacarry0. Step 4: The
preceding carry is added to the most significant bit i.e. 0+1+0 = 1 with a carry 0.
Thusthe sum is 1101.

BINARYSUBTRACTION
Thebinarysubtraction table is asfollows:

A-B DIFFERENCE BORROW

0-0 0 0
0-1 1 1
1-0 1 0
1-1 0 0
Illustration1:
Subtract(0101)2from (1011)2
1011 (Minuend)
0101 (Subtrahend)

0110 (Difference)

Thestepsaredescribedbelow
Step1:the LSBin thefirstcolumnare1 and1.Hence,thedifferenceis 1 - 1=0
Step2:Thecolumn,thesubtractionisperformedas1 –0=1
Step3: Inthethirdcolumn,thedifferenceisgiven by0 –1=1
Step4:Inthefourthcolumn(MSB),thedifferenceisgivenby0–0=0since1isborrowedforthird column.

BINARYMULTIPLICATION
Thebinarymultiplicationtableisasfollows:
A*B PRODUCT
0*0 0
0*1 0
1*0 0
1*1 1

➢ Binarymultiplication uses addand shift process

➢ Binarymultiplicationissimilartodecimalmultiplication.
Illustration1:
Multiplicand*Multiplier
10110.1x01001.1

101101
101101
000000
000000 PartialProduct
101101
000000

011010101.11 (Finalproduct)

Thestepsaredescribedbelow
Step 1: The LSB of the multiplier is taken. If multiplier bit is 1, the multiplicand is copied as such and
ifthe multiplier bit is 0 zero is placed in all the bit positions.
Step 2: The next higher significant bit of the multiplier is taken and, the partial product is written with the
shift to the left, as in step 1.
Step3:step2isrepeated forallotherhighersignificantbits.
Step4:Thepartialproducttermsareaddedwhichgivestheactualproductofmultiplierandthe multiplicand.

BINARYDIVISION:
Thebinarydivisiontableisas follows:
A÷B Result
0÷0 Not allowed
0÷1 0
1÷0 Not allowed
1÷1 1

➢ Binarydivisionusessubtractandshift process
➢ Binarydivision issimilartodecimal division.
➢ Division by0ismeaningless.
Illustration1:
Dividend ÷Divisor
11011.1÷101
101.1 (QUOTIENT)
DIVISOR 101 √11011.1 (DIVIDEND)
101

111
101

101
101

7. BINARYCODES
Binary codes are codes which are represented in binary system with modification from the original
one. The group of symbols is called as a code. The digital data is represented, stored and transmitted as
group of binary bits. This group isalso called as binary code. The binary code is represented by the number
as well as alphanumeric letter.
AdvantagesofBinaryCode
Followingisthelist ofadvantagesthat binarycodeoffers.
1. Binarycodesaresuitable forthe computerapplications.
2. Binarycodesaresuitable forthedigital communications.
3. Binarycodesmaketheanalysis anddesigning of digital circuitsif weusethebinarycodes.
4. Sinceonly0 and 1arebeingused, implementationbecomes easy.
Classificationofbinarycodes:Thecodes are broadlycategorizedintofollowingfourcategories.
• Weighted Codes
• Non-Weighted Codes
• BinaryCodedDecimalCode
• AlphanumericCodes
 • ErrorCodes
Weightedcodes:Weightedbinarycodesarethosebinary codeswhichobeythepositionalweight
principle. Each position of the number represents a specific weight
Decimal 8421 5421 2421 5211
0 0000 0000 0000 0000
1 0001 0001 0001 0001
2 0010 0010 0010 0011
3 0011 0011 0011 0101
4 0100 0100 0100 0111
5 0101 1000 1011 1000
6 0110 1001 1100 1010
7 0111 1010 1101 1100
8 1000 1011 1110 1110
9 1001 1100 1111 1111

Forexample,in8421BCDcode,1001theweightsof1,0,0,1(fromlefttoright)are8,4,2and1 respectively. The codes

8421BCD, 2421BCD, 5211BCD are all weighted codes.
Non-weightedcodes:Thenon-weightedcodesarenotpositionallyweighted.Inotherwords,each digit
position within the number is not assigned a fixed value (or weight).
Examplesare
• Excess-3
• Graycode
DECIMAL EXCESS -3 GRAYCODE
0 0011 0000
1 0100 0001
2 0101 0011

6.1.3EXCESS–3 CODES:-
• ThisisanotherformofBCDcode,in whicheachdecimaldigitis codedinto a4-bitbinarycode.
• Thecodeforeachdecimaldigitisobtainedbyaddingdecimal3tothenaturalBCDcodeofthe digit.
GRAYCONVERSION:-
• Recordthemostsignificant bitaddthebinaryMSBtothenext significantbitoftheGraycode.
• Recordtheresult,ignoringcarriercontinuetheprocess,untiltheLSBis reached.
REFLECTIVE CODES: A code is reflective when the code is self-complementing. In otherwords, when the
code for 9 is the complement the code for 0, 8 for 1, 7 for 2, 6 for 3 and 5 for 4. 2421BCD, 5421BCD and
Excess-3 code are reflective codes.
SEQUENTIAL CODES: In sequential codes, each succeeding 'code is one binary number greater than its
preceding code. This propertyhelps in manipulation of data. 8421 BCD and Excess-3 are sequential codes.
ALPHANUMERIC CODES: Codes used to represent numbers, alphabetic characters, symbols and various
instructions necessary for conveying intelligible information. ASCII, EBCDIC, UNICODE are the most-
commonly used alphanumeric codes.

8. Decimalcode
Binarycodesfordecimaldigitsrequireaminimumoffourbits.Numerousdifferentcodescanbeobtained by
arranging four or more bits in ten distinct possible combinations. A few possibilities are tabulated.
 9. Errordetection code
In datatransmission, Interference andphysicaldefectsinthecommunicationmediumcan cause randombit
errors. As the signal is transmitted through a media, the signal gets corrupted because of noise and
distortion. Therefore the media is not reliable. To achieve a reliable communication through this unreliable
media, there is need for detecting the error in the signal so that suitable mechanism can be devised to take
corrective actions.
Error coding is a method of detecting and correcting these errors to ensure information is transferred intact
from its source to its destination
Theerrorscanbedividedintotwotypes:
• Single-bit Error: onlyone bit of given data unit (such as a byte, character, or data unit) is changed from 1
to 0 or from 0 to 1.
• BurstError:twoormorebitsinthedataunithavechangedfrom0to1orvice-versa.(Heredoesn’t
necessarymeansthaterroroccursinconsecutivebits) Error
Detecting Codes:
Basicapproachusedforerrordetectionistheuseofredundancy,whereadditionalbitsareaddedto facilitate detection
and correction of errors.
Populartechniquesare:
• SimpleParitycheck
• Two-dimensionalParitycheck
• Checksum
• Cyclicredundancycheck
DetectingErrorsusingsimpleparity check
Supposewearetransmitting7-bitASCIIcharacters.Aparitybitisaddedtoeachcharactertomakeit8 bits. Parity can
detect all single-bit errors
–If even parity is used and a single bit changes, it will change the parity to odd, which will be detected at
the receiver end
–Thereceiverendcandetecttheerror,butcannotcorrectitbecauseitdoesnotknowwhichbitiserroneous Parity can
also detect some multiple-bit errors
Table1showsthefourbitdatawordanditscorrespondingcodewords
Decimalvalue Datablock Paritybit Codeword
0 0000 0 00000
1 0001 1 00011
2 0010 1 00101
 3 0011 0 00110
4 0100 1 01001
5 0101 0 01010
6 0110 0 01100
7 0111 1 01111
8 1000 1 10001
9 1001 0 10010
10 1010 0 10100
11 1011 1 10111
12 1100 0 11000
13 1101 1 11011
14 1110 1 11101
15 1111 0 11110

10. GrayCode-ReflectionandSelfComplementarycodes
• GrayCodeisanon-weightedcodewhichbelongstoaclassofcodescalledminimumchange codes.
• GrayCodeisanalternativebinaryrepresentation,devisedsuchthat,betweenanytwo adjacent
numbers, only one bit changes at a time.
Binary Dec Gray
00000 0 00000
00001 1 00001
00010 2 00011
00011 3 00010
00100 4 00110
00101 5 00111
00110 6 00101
00111 7 00100
01000 8 01100
01001 9 01101
01010 10 01111
01011 11 01110
01100 12 01010
01101 13 01011
01110 14 01001
01111 15 01000
• Totheleftweseethreecolumnsofdata.Thesearerepresentationsofthesamenumbers0-15in different
ways.
o Inthe middleisthedecimal value.
o Ontheleftispositionalnotationbinary
o Ontheright is Graycode.
• Youwillnoticethat,ontheright,eachadjacentrowisdifferentfromit'sneighboursbynomore than one
bit.
• ThetermGraycodeisoftenusedtorefertoa"reflected"code,ormorespecificallystill,thebinary reflected
Gray code.
Self-complementaryCode
• Acodeissaidtobeself-complementaryifthecodefor9’scomplementofNi.e.9-Ncanbeobtainedby
interchanging all 0s and 1s.
• Decimal9 isthe complement ofcodefor0,8 for 1,7for2and so on.
• Foracodetobeselfcomplementing,thesumofallitsweightsmustbe9.digit.8421and5421codesare not self
complementing codes whereas 5211,2421,3321, 4321 are self complementing.
• Ingeneral, a codeisself-complementaryifweproducea codebytakingthefirstcomplement ofthedigit
whichissameas9’s complementofthenumber.
10.2Reflectivecode
• Imagedaboutthe centre entrieswithonebitchanged
• Exampleï9ís complementof areflected BCD codeword isformed bychangingonlyoneof itsbits
• IntheGraycodeexampleshownbelow,theMSBbitaloneischangingandtheremainingbitsis reflected
mirror image about the centre. For clarity, the MSB is removed.
• Graycode Reflected propertyof Gray code

Binary-to-Graycodeconversion
• TheMSBintheGraycodeisthesameascorrespondingMSBinthebinarynumber.
• Goingfromleft toright, addeachadjacent pairofbinarycodebitstoget thenext Graycodebit.
• Discard carries.
Problem:Convert10110tograycode

Gray-to-BinaryConversion
• TheMSBinthebinarycodeisthesameasthecorrespondingbit intheGraycode.
• Addeach binarycodebit generated totheGraycodebit inthenext adjacentposition.
• Discard carries.
Problem:ConverttheGraycodeword11011 to binary
 11. Binary-CodedDecimalCode
Although the binary number system is the most natural system for a computer because it is readily
representedin today’s electronictechnology, most people are more accustomed to thedecimal system. One
way to resolve this difference is to convert decimal numbers to binary, perform all arithmetic calculationsin
binary, and then convert the binary results back to decimal. This method requires that we store decimal
numbers in the computer so that they can be converted to binary. Since the computer can accept onlybinary
values, we must represent the decimal digits by means of a code that contains 1’s and 0’s. It is also possible
to perform the arithmetic operations directly on decimal numbers when they are stored in the computer in
coded form.
A binary code will have some unassigned bit combinations if the number of elements in the set is
not a multiple power of 2. The 10 decimal digits form such a set. A binary code that distinguishes among10
elements must contain at least four bits, but 6 out of the 16 possible combinations remain unassigned.
Different binarycodes can be obtained byarranging four bits into 10 distinct combinations. This scheme is
called binary-coded decimal and is commonly referred to as BCD.
A number with k decimal digits will require 4k bits in BCD. Decimal 396 is represented in BCD
with 12 bits as 0011 1001 0110, with each group of 4 bits representing one decimal digit. A decimal
number in BCD is the same as its equivalent binary number only when the number is between 0 and 9. A
BCD number greater than 10 looks different from its equivalent binary number, even though both contain
1’s and 0’s. Note that the BCD code is not self‐complementing. Moreover, the binary combinations 1010
through1111 arenotusedandhavenomeaninginBCD. Considerdecimal185anditscorrespondingvalue in BCD
and binary:
(185)10=(000110000101)BCD= (10111001)2

Table1
InmultidigitBCDcoding

BCDaddition:
TheadditionoftwoBCDnumberscanbebestunderstoodbyconsideringthethreecasesthatoccur when two
BCD digits are added.
Sumequals9orlesswithcarry0
Letusconsideradditionsof3and6inBCD.
Sumgreaterthan9withcarry0
Letusconsideradditionof6and8inBCD

Thesum1110isaninvalidBCDnumber.Thishasoccurredbecausethesumofthetwodigitsexceeds9. Whenever
this occurs this occurs the sum has to be corrected bythe addition of six (1110) in the invalid BCD
number, as shown below

Sumequals9orlesswithcarry1
Letusconsideradditionof8and9inBCD

Inthiscase,result(0010001)isvalidBCDnumber,butitisincorrect.TogetthecorrectBCDresult correction
factor of 6 has to be added to the least significant digit sum, as shown.

BCDaddition procedure
1. Addtwo BCDnumbers usingordinarybinaryaddition.
2. Iffourbitsumisequalto orlessthan9,nocorrectionisneeded.Thesumisinproper BCDform.
 3. Ifthefourbitsumisgreaterthan9orifacarryis generatedfromthefour-bitsum,thesumis invalid.
4. Tocorrecttheinvalidsum,add01102tothefour-bitsum. Ifacarryresults fromthisaddition,addit to the
next higher-order BCD digit.

12. Alphanumericcodes
Alphanumeric codes are sometimes called character codes due to their certain properties. Now
these codes are basically binary codes. We can write alphanumeric data, including data, letters of the
alphabet, numbers, mathematical symbols and punctuation marks by this code which can be easily
understandable and can be processed by the computers. Input output devices such as keyboards, monitors,
mouse can be interfaced using these codes. 12-bit Hollerith code is the better known and perhaps the first
effectivecodeinthedays ofevolvingcomputersinearlydays.Duringthisperiodpunchcardswereusedas the
inputting and outputting data. But nowadays these codes are termed obsolete as many other modern codes
have evolved. The most common alphanumeric codes used these days are ASCII code, EBCDIC code
and Unicode.

ASCIICharacterCode
 Many applications of digital computers require the handling not only of numbers, but also of other
characters or symbols, such as the letters of the alphabet. For instance, consider a high‐tech company with
thousands of employees. To represent the names and other pertinent information, it is necessary to
formulate a binary code for the letters of the alphabet. In addition, the same binary code must represent
numerals and special characters (such as $). An alphanumeric character set is a set of elements thatincludes
the 10 decimal digits, the 26 letters of the alphabet, and a number of special characters. Such a set contains
between 36 and 64 elements if onlycapital letters areincluded, or between 64 and 128 elements if
bothuppercaseandlowercaseletters areincluded. Inthefirstcase,weneed abinarycodeofsix bits,andin the
second, we need a binary code of seven bits. The standard binary code for the alphanumeric characters is
the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), which uses seven bits to code 128
characters, as shown in Table below. The seven bits of the code are designated by b1 through b7, with
b7themostsignificantbit.TheletterA, forexample,isrepresentedinASCIIas1000001 (column100,row 0001).
The ASCII code also contains 94 graphic characters that can be printed and 34 nonprinting characters used
for various control functions.
The graphic characters consist of the 26 uppercase letters (A through Z), the 26 lowercase letters (a
throughz),the10numerals(0through9),and32specialprintablecharacters,suchas%,*,and
$.characters. Format effectors are characters that control the layout of printing. They include the familiar
word processor and typewriter controls such as backspace (BS), horizontal tabulation (HT), and carriage
return (CR). Information separators are used to separate the data into divisions such as paragraphs and
pages. They include characters such as record separator (RS) and file separator (FS). The
communication‐controlcharactersareuseful duringthetransmissionoftextbetweenremotedevices sothat it can
be distinguished from other messages using the same communication channel before it and after it.
Examples of communication‐control characters are STX (start of text) and ETX (end of text), which are
used to frame a text message transmitted through a communication channel.
ASCII is a seven‐bit code, but most computers manipulate an eight‐bit quantity as a single unit
called a byte. Therefore, ASCII characters most often are stored one per byte. The extra bit is sometimes
used for other purposes, depending on the application.
Forexample,someprintersrecognizeeight‐bitASCIIcharacterswiththemostsignificantbitsetto
0. An additional 128 eight‐bit characters with the most significant bit set to 1 are used for other symbols,
such as the Greek alphabet or italic type font.

EBCDIC
 The EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. IBM invented this
code to extend the Binary Coded Decimal which existed at that time. All the IBM computers and
peripheralsusethiscode. Itisan8bitcodeandthereforecanaccommodate256characters.Belowisgiven some
characters of EBCDIC code to get familiar with it.

13. HAMMINGCODE-ERRORDETECTIONANDCORRECTION

Hamming code is a set of error-correction code s that can be used to detect and correct bit errorsthat
can occur when computer data is moved or stored.
ErrorDetectingCodes
Basic approach used for error detection is the use of redundancy, where additional bits are added to
facilitate detection and correction of errors. Popular techniques are: • Simple Parity check • Two-
dimensional Parity check • Checksum • Cyclic redundancy check
SimpleParityChecking orOne-dimensionParityCheckThemostcommonandleastexpensivemechanism for
error- detection is the simple parity check. In this technique, a redundant bit called parity bit, is appended to
every data unit so that the number of 1s in the unit (including the parity becomes even).Blocks of data from
the source are subjected to a check bit or Paritybit generator form, where a parityof 1 is added to the block
if it contains an odd number of 1’s (ON bits) and 0 is added if it contains an even number of 1’s. At the
receiving end the parity bit is computed from the received data bits and compared withthereceived
paritybit,asshownin Fig1. Thisscheme makesthetotal numberof 1’s even,that iswhy it is called even parity
checking. Considering a 4-bit word, different combinations of the data words andthe corresponding code
words are given in Table 1. Note that for the sake of simplicity, we are discussing herethe even-
paritychecking, wherethenumber of1’s should be an even number. It is also possibleto use odd-parity
checking, where the number of 1’s should be odd.
Fig1) Even paritychecking scheme

Table1:Possible4bitdatawordsandcorrespondingcodewords
Two-dimension Parity Check
Performance can be improved by using two-dimensional parity check, which organizes the block of bits in
the form of a table. Parity check bits are calculated for each row, which is equivalent to a simple parity
check bit. Paritycheck bits arealso calculated for all columns then both are sent alongwith the data. At the
receiving end these are compared with the parity bitcalculated on the received data. This is illustrated in
Fig. 2. Performance Two- Dimension ParityChecking increases the likelihood of detecting burst errors. As
we have shown in Fig. 2, that a 2-D Paritycheck of n bits can detect a burst error of n bits. A burst error of
morethan n bits is also detected by2-D Paritycheck with a highprobability. There is, however, one pattern
of error that remains elusive. If two bits in one data unit are damaged and two bits in exactlysame position
inanotherdataunitarealsodamaged, the2-DParitycheck checkerwillnot detect an error.Forexample,if two
data units: 11001100 and 10101100. If first and second from last bits in each of them is changed, making
the data units as 01001110 and 00101110, the error cannot be detected by 2-D Parity check.
 Fig2)Twodimensionparitychecking
ExampleofHamming Code Generation
Suppose a binary data 1001101 is to be transmitted. To implement hamming code for this, following steps
are used:
1. Calculatingthenumberofredundancybitsrequired.Sincenumberofdatabitsis7,thevalueofris calculated as
2r>m+r+1
24>7 +4 +1
Thereforeno.ofredundancybits=4
2. Determining the positions of various data bits and redundancy bits. The various r bits are placed at the
position that corresponds to the power of 2 i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8
4. Thusdata 1 0 01 1 1 00 1 0 1 with be transmitted.
13.1ErrorDetection&Correction
Consideringacaseofabovediscussedexample,ifbitnumber7hasbeenchangedfrom1to0.Thedatawill be
erroneous.

Datasent:1 00 11 10010 1
Datareceived:10010 100101(seventh bitchanged)
ThereceivetakesthetransmissionandrecalculatesfournewVRCsusingthesamesetofbitsusedby sender plus the
relevant parity (r) bit for each set as shown in fig.
Thenit assembles thenew parityvalues intoabinarynumberin orderofr position (r8, r4,r2, r1).
Inthisexample,thisstepgivesusthebinary number0111.Thiscorrespondstodecimal7.Thereforebit number 7
contains an error. To correct this error, bit 7 is reversed from 0 to 1.

References:
1. MorisMano,“DigitalComputerFundamentals”TMH3rdEdition
2. http://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_logical_organization/number_system_conversion.htm
3. http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/binary/signed-binary-numbers.html
4. HAMMING,R.→.“ErrorDetectingandErrorCorrectingCodes.”BellSystemTech.Jour.,29
(1950):147–160.
5. A.PGODSE,D.A.GODSE.”DigitalSystems”.TechnicalPublications.Pune.
6. http://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_logical_organization/binary_codes.htm
7. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-
contents/IIScBANG/Digital%20Systems/Digital%20Systems.pdf
8. DigitalLogicCircuitsbyD.A.GodseA.P.Godse
 UNITII-BOOLEANALGEBRAANDLOGICGATES

Axiomatic definitions of Boolean Algebra - Basic Theorems and Properties of Boolean Algebra -
Boolean Functions- Canonical and Standard forms - Digital Logic Gates- Simplification of Boolean
Expressions, The map method- SOP and POS - NAND and NOR implementation - Don’t Cares - The
Tabulation Method - Determination and Selection of Prime Implicants.

AxiomaticDefinitionofBooleanalgebra
1. Closure
a. Closurewithrespectto(wrt)OR(+)
b. Closurewithrespect toAND(·)
2. Identity
a. Identityelementwrt toOR:0
b. IdentityelementwrttoAND:1
3. Commutative Property
a. Commutative PropertywrttoOR :x+y=y+x
b. CommutativePropertywrttoAND: x·y=y·x
4. DistributiveProperty
X·(y+z)=(x·y)+(x·z)
x+(y·z) =(x+y)(x+z)
5. ExistenceofComplement
x + x’ = 1
x· x’= 0

Precedence:

(1) Parentheses (2) NOT (3)AND (4) OR

2. 2BasicTheoremsandPropertiesofBooleanalgebra

Operationswith0and1:

• X +0=X
• X•1=X
• X+1=1
• X•0=0
Idempotent laws

• X +X=X
• X•X=X
Involutionlaw:

• ( X')'=X

Lawsof complementarity:

• X +X'= 1
• X•X'=0

Commutative laws:

• X +Y =Y+X
• X•Y=Y•X

Associative laws:

• (X+Y) +Z=X +(Y+ Z)=X + Y + Z

• (XY)Z=X(YZ)=XYZ

Distributivelaws:

• X(Y + Z) =XY+XZ
• X +YZ=( X+Y)(X+Z)

Simplificationtheorems:

• X Y+X Y'= X
• ( X+Y ) ( X+Y')=X
• X +XY=X
• X (X +Y) =X
• ( X+Y')Y =XY
• XY'+Y = X +Y

DeMorgan’slaws:

Therearetwo“deMorgan´s”rulesor theorems,

• TwoseparatetermsNOR´edtogetheristhesameasthetwotermsinverted(Complement) and
AND´ed for example, (X+Y)’ = X’.Y’.
• TwoseparatetermsNAND´edtogetheristhesameasthetwotermsinverted(Complement) and
OR´ed for example, (X.Y)’ =X’ +Y’.

Duality:

“EveryalgebraicexpressiondeduciblefromthepostulatesofBooleanAlgebraremainsvalid ifthe operations and

identity elements are interchanged.”
• ( X+Y+Z+… )D=XYZ…
• (XYZ…)D =X+ Y+Z+…
• [f(X1, X2, … XN, 0, 1,+, •)]D=f(X1, X2,… XN, 1, 0, •, +)
 3. Boolean Functions
Asimple2-inputAND,ORandNOTGatescan berepresentedby16possiblefunctionsasshown inthe following
table.

Laws ofBoolean Algebra

Function Description Expression

1. NULL 0
2. IDENTITY 1
3. Input A A
4. Input B B
5. NOT A A’
6. NOT B B’
7. AANDB (AND) A. B
8. AANDNOTB A. B’
9. NOTAANDB A’.B
10. NOTAANDNOTB(NAND)A’.B’
11. AORB(OR) A+ B
12. AORNOTB A+ B’
13. NOTAORB A’+B
14. NOTOR(NOR) (A+ B)’
15. Exclusive-OR A.B’+A’.B
16. Exclusive-NOR A’.B’+A.B

Example
Usingtheabovelaws, simplifythe followingexpression:(A+B)(A +C)
Q= (A+ B).(A+C)
A.A+A.C +A.B + B.C – Distributivelaw
A +A.C +A.B+B.C –IdempotentANDlaw(A.A=A)
A(1+C) +A.B +B.C – Distributivelaw
A.1+A.B+B.C –IdentityORlaw(1+C=1)
A(1+ B)+B.C – Distributivelaw
A.1 +B.C –IdentityORlaw(1+ B=1)
Q= A +(B.C) –IdentityANDlaw(A.1=A)

Thentheexpression:(A +B)(A+C)canbesimplified to A +(B.C)asin theDistributivelaw.

4. CanonicalandStandardForms

Logical functions are generally expressed in terms of different combinations of logical variables with
theirtrueformsas wellasthecomplementforms. Binarylogicvaluesobtainedbythelogicalfunctions and logic
variables are in binary form. An arbitrary logic function can be expressed in the following forms.

(i) Sumof theProducts (SOP)

(ii) ProductoftheSums(POS)

Product Term:
 In Booleanalgebra,thelogicalproductofseveralvariablesonwhichafunctiondependsis
consideredtobeaproductterm.Inotherwords,theANDfunctionisreferredtoasaproductterm or
standard product. The variables in a product term can be either in true form or in complemented
form. For example, ABC′ is a product term.

Sum Term:

AnORfunctionisreferredto asasumterm.The logical sumofseveralvariableson which

afunctiondependsisconsideredtobeasumterm.Variablesinasumtermcanalsobeeitherin true form or
in complemented form. For example, A + B + C′ is a sum term.

SumofProducts (SOP):

Thelogicalsumoftwoormorelogicalproducttermsisreferredtoasasumofproducts
expression. ItisbasicallyanORoperationon ANDoperatedvariables.For example,Y=AB+ BC +
AC or Y = A′B + BC + AC′ are sum of products expressions.

ProductofSums (POS):

Similarly,thelogicalproductoftwoormorelogicalsumtermsiscalledaproductofsums
expression. It is an AND operation on OR operated variables. For example, Y = (A + B + C)(A +
B′ + C)(A + B + C′) or Y = (A + B + C)(A′ + B′ + C′) are product of sums expressions.

Standard form:

Thestandard form of the Boolean function is when it is expressed in sum of theproducts

orproductofthesumsfashion.Theexamplesstatedabove,likeY=AB+BC+ACorY=(A+ B + C)(A +
B′ + C)(A + B + C′) are the standard forms. However, Boolean functions are also
sometimesexpressed in nonstandard formslike F =(AB+CD)(A′B′ +C′D′), which is neither a sum
of products form nor a product of sums form. However, the same expression can be converted to
a standard form with help of various Boolean properties, as:
F=(AB+CD)(A′B′+C′D′) =A′B′CD + ABC′D′

Minterm

Aproduct termcontainingalln variablesofthe functionin eithertrueorcomplemented

form is called the minterm. Each minterm is obtained by an AND operation of the variables in
their true form or complemented form. For a two-variable function, four different combinations
are possible, such as, A′B′, A′B, AB′, and AB. These product terms are called the fundamental
productsorstandardproductsorminterms.Intheminterm,avariablewillpossessthevalue1ifit
isintrueoruncomplementedform,whereas,itcontainsthevalue0ifitisincomplementedform. For three
variables function, eight minterms are possible as listed in the following table

A B C Minterm
0 0 0 A’B’C’
0 0 1 A’B’C
 0 1 0 A’BC’
0 1 1 A’BC
1 0 0 AB’C’
1 0 1 AB’C
1 1 0 ABC’
1 1 1 ABC

So,ifthenumberofvariablesisn,thenthepossiblenumberofmintermsis2n.Themainproperty of a
minterm is that it possesses the value of 1 for only one combination of n input variables and the
rest of the 2n – 1 combinations have the logic value of 0. This means, for the above three
variables example, if A = 0, B = 1, C = 1 i.e., for input combination of 011, there is only one
combination A′BC that has the value 1, the rest of the seven combinations have the value 0.

CanonicalSumofProductExpression:

WhenaBooleanfunctionisexpressedasthelogicalsumofallthemintermsfromtherows of a truth
table, for which the value of the function is 1, it is referred to as the canonical sum of product
expression. The same can be expressed in a compact form by listing the corresponding decimal-
equivalent codes of the minterms containing a function value of 1.
Forexample,ifthecanonicalsumofproductformofathree-variablelogicfunctionFhas the
minterms A′BC, AB′C, and ABC′, this can be expressed as the sum of the decimal codes
corresponding to these minterms as below.
F(A,B,C)= (3,5,6)
=m3 + m5 +m6
=A′BC+ AB′C+ABC′
whereΣ(3,5,6)representsthesummation ofmintermscorrespondingtodecimalcodes3,5, and
6. Thecanonicalsumof productsformofalogicfunctioncanbeobtainedbyusingthefollowing
procedure:
1. Checkeachterminthegivenlogicfunction.Retainifitisaminterm,continuetoexaminethe next term
in the same manner.

2. Examineforthevariablesthataremissingineachproductwhichisnotaminterm.Ifthe missing
variable in the minterm is X, multiply that minterm with (X+X′).

2.Multiplyall theproductsand discardthe redundant terms.

Maxterm

A sum term containing all n variables of the function in either true or complemented form
is called the maxterm. Each maxterm is obtained byan OR operation of the variables in their true
formorcomplementedform.Fourdifferentcombinationsarepossibleforatwo-variablefunction, such
as, A′ + B′, A′ + B, A + B′, and A + B. These sum terms are called the standard sums or
maxterms. Note that, in the maxterm, a variable will possess the value 0, if it is in true or
uncomplemented form, whereas, it contains the value 1, if it is in complemented form. Like
minterms,forathree-variablefunction,eightmaxtermsare alsopossibleaslistedinthefollowing table
 A B C Maxterm
0 0 0 A+B+C
0 0 1 A+B+C’
0 1 0 A+B’+C
0 1 1 A+B’+C’
1 0 0 A’+B+C
1 0 1 A’+B+C’
1 1 0 A’+B’+C
1 1 1 A’+B’+C’

So, if the number of variables is n, then the possible number of maxterms is 2n. The main
property of a maxterm is that it possesses the value of 0 for only one combination of n input
variables and the rest of the 2n –1 combinations have the logic value of 1. This means, for the
abovethreevariablesexample,ifA=1,B=1,C =0i.e.,forinputcombinationof110,thereis onlyone
combination A′ + B′ + C that has the value 0, the rest of the seven combinations have the value
1.

CanonicalProductofSum Expression:

WhenaBooleanfunctionisexpressedasthelogicalproductofallthemaxtermsfromtherowsof a truth
table, for which the value of the function is 0, it is referred to as the canonical product of sum
expression. The same can be expressed in a compact form by listing the corresponding decimal
equivalent codes of the maxterms containing a function value of 0. For example, if the canonical
product of sums form of a three-variable logic function F has the maxterms A + B + C, A + B′ +
C, and A′ + B + C′, this can be expressed as the product of the decimal codes corresponding to
thesemaxterms as below,

F(A,B,C) =Π(0,2,5)

=M0 M2 M5

=(A+ B+C) (A+B′ +C)(A′+B+C′)

whereΠ(0,2,5)representstheproductofmaxtermscorrespondingtodecimalcodes0,2,and5. The
canonical product of sums form of a logic function can be obtained by using the following
procedure.

1. Checkeachterminthegivenlogicfunction.Retain itifitisamaxterm,continuetoexamine the next

term in the same manner.

2. Examineforthevariablesthataremissingineachsumtermthatisnotamaxterm.Ifthe missing
variable in the maxterm is X, add that maxterm with (X.X′).

3. Expandtheexpressionusingthepropertiesandpostulatesasdescribedearlieranddiscardthe
redundant terms. Some examples are given here to explain the above procedure.

5. BooleanFunction
 Boolean algebra deals with binary variables and logic operation. A Boolean Function is described by an
algebraic expression called Boolean expression which consists of binary variables, the constants 0 and 1, and the
logic operation symbols. Consider the following example

TruthTable Formation
Atruthtablerepresentsatablehavingallcombinationsofinputsandtheircorrespondingresult.

Itispossibletoconverttheswitchingequationintoatruthtable.Forexample,considerthefollowing switching
equation.

Theoutputwillbehigh(1)ifA =1orBC =1orbothare1.Thetruth tableforthisequationis shownbyTable(a).

n
Thenumberof rowsin thetruth tableis2 wher en isthe numberof inputvariables(n=3 forthegiven equation).
3
Hence thereare2=8possibleinputcombinationof inputs.

6. DIGITALLOGIC GATES

A large number of electronic circuits (in computers, control units, and so on) are made up of logic
gates.Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These process signals which represent
trueorfalse.ThebasicgatesaretheAND,OR,NOTgates.Themostcommonsymbolsusedtorepresentlogicgates are
shown below.

ANDgate:
 The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high. A dot (.)
isused to show the AND operation i.e. A.B. Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e. AB.

OR gate:

TheORgateisanelectroniccircuitthatgives ahighoutput(1)if oneormoreofitsinputs arehigh.A plus (+) is

used to show the OR operation.

NOT gate:

7. SimplificationofBooleanExpressions

Minimization of Boolean functions is an approach where a given Boolean expression can be transformed
from one form to another equivalent form by applying Boolean Theorems. By minimizing the expressions the
individual components used in electrical circuits can be minimized or reduced. This allows designers to make use
of fewer components, thus reducing the cost of a particular system. It should be noted that there are no fixed
rules that can be used to minimize a given expression. It is left to an individual’s ability to apply BooleanTheorems
in order to minimize a function.

Examples:

Example 1:

UsingBooleanalgebratechniques,simplifytheexpressionX.Y+X(Y+Z)+Y(Y+Z)

Solution:

Given:X .Y+X (Y+Z) +Y(Y+ Z).

Applyingdistributiveproperty,weget

X . Y+ X(Y+Z)+Y (Y+ Z)=X. Y+ X.Y+X. Z+Y .Y+ Y. Z

WeknowB.B= B
= X.Y +X.Y + X.Z +Y +Y .Z

WeknowA .B+ A .B= A.B

=X. Y+ X. Z+ Y+ Y. Z
=X .Y+ X.Z+Y[Weknow (B +BC= B)]
=Y +XZ
Example 2:

UsingBooleanalgebratechniques,simplifythisexpression:AB+A(B+C)+B(B+ C)

Solution
Applythedistributivelawtothesecondandthirdtermsintheexpression,asfollows:

AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C)=AB + AB + AC + BB + BC =AB + AB + AC + B + BC

[BB=B]=AB+AC+B+BC[AB+AB=AB]=AB+AC+B[B
+BC =B] =B+AC
[AB+B =B]
Example 3:

UsingBooleanalgebratechniques,simplifythisexpressionA.B’+A.B+ B.C

Solution

A.B’+A.B+B.C=A.(B’+B)+ B.C
=A.1 +B.C
=A + B.C

Example 4:

UsingBooleanalgebratechniques,simplifythisexpressionA’.B.C+A.B’.C+A.B.C’+A.B.C

Solution:

A’.B.C+A.B’.C+A.B.C’+A.B.C=A’.B.C+A.B’.C+A.B.C’+A.B.C+A.B.C+A.B.C
=(A’.B.C+A.B.C)+(A.B’.C+A.B.C)+(A.B.C’+ A.B.C)
= (A’+A).B.C +(B’+ B).C.A+(C’+C). A.B
= B.C +C.A+ A.B

STANDARDFORMSOFBOOLEANEXPRESSIONS

AllBooleanexpressions,regardlessoftheirform,canbeconvertedintoeitheroftwostandardforms:the sum-of-
products form or the product-of-sums form.

Standardizationmakestheevaluation,simplification,andimplementationofBoolean expressionsmuch more

systematic and easier.

TheSum-of-Products(SOP)Form

WhentwoormoreproducttermsaresummedbyBooleanaddition,theresultingexpressionisasum-of- products
(SOP). Some examples are:
AB+ ABC
ABC+C’DE+B’CD’
AB + BCD + AC
Also,anSOPexpressioncancontainasingle-variableterm,asin A +
ABC’ + BCD’.

InanSOPexpressionasingleoverbarcannotextendovermorethanonevariable.

Example
ConverteachofthefollowingBooleanexpressionstoSOP form:
(a) AB+B(CD+EF)
(b) (A+ B)(B+C+D)
(c) *(A+B)’+C+’

TheStandardSOPForm

So far, you have seen SOP expressions in which some of the product terms do not contain all of the
variables in the domain of the expression.
For example, the expression A’BC’ + AB’D + ABC’D’ has a domain made up of the variables A, B, C. and D.
However, notice that the complete set of variables in the domain is not represented in the first two terms of the
expression; that is, D or D’ is missing from the first term and C or C’ is missing from the second term.
A standard SOP expression is one in which all the variables in the domain appear in each product term in
the expression. For example, A’BCD’ + ABC’D+ AB’CD are a standard SOP expression.

ConvertingProductTermstoStandardSOP:

Each product term in an SOP expression that does not contain all the variables in the domain can be
expandedtostandardSOPtoincludeallvariablesinthedomainandtheircomplements.Asstatedinthe
→
followingsteps,anonstandardSOPexpressionisconvertedintostandardformusingBooleanalgebrarule (A +
A’=1)i.e.,Avariableaddedtoitscomplementequals 1.

Step 1: Multiply each nonstandard product term by a term made up of the sum of a missing variable and
its complement. This results in two product terms. As you know, you can multiply anything by 1 without changing
its Value.

Step 2: Repeat Step 1 until all resulting product terms contain all variables in the domain in either
complemented or uncomplemented form. In converting a product term to standard form, the number of product
terms is doubled for each missing variable.

Example
ConvertthefollowingBooleanexpressionintostandardSOPform:AB’C+A’B’+ABC’D

Solution

ThedomainofthisSOPexpressionA,B,C,D.Take onetermata time.

Thefirstterm,ABC,ismissingvariableDorD’,somultiplythefirsttermby(D+D)asfollows:AB’C= AB’C(D + D’) =

AB’CD + AB’CD’
Inthiscase,twostandardproducttermsaretheresult.

Thesecondterm,A’B’;ismissingvariablesCorC’andDorD’,sofirstmultiplythesecondtermbyC+C’as follows:
A’B’=A’B’(C+C’)=A’B’C+A’B’C’

ThetworesultingtermsaremissingvariableDorD’,somultiplybothtermsby(D+D)asfollows A’B’C(D + D’) +

A’B’C’(D + D’)= A’B’CD + A’B’CD’ + A’B’C’D + A’B’C’D’

Inthiscase,fourstandardproducttermsaretheresult.

The third term, ABC’D, is already in standard form. The complete standard SOP form of the original expression is
as follows:
AB’C+A’B’+ABC’D=AB’CD+AB’CD‘+A’B’CD+A’B’CD’+A’B’C’D+A’B’C’D’+ABC’D

TheProduct-of-Sums(POS) Form

A sumtermwasdefinedbefore asatermconsistingofthe sum (Booleanaddition)ofliterals(variables or

their complements). When two or more sum terms are multiplied, the resulting expression is a product-of-sums
(POS). Some examples are

(A’+ B)(A +B’ +C)

(A+B’+C’)(C+D’+E)(B+C+D)(A+ B’)(A + B’
+ C)(A + C)
APOSexpressioncancontainasingle-variableterm,asinA(A+B+C)(B+C+D).

In a POS expression, a single over bar cannot extend over more than one variable; however, more than
one variable in a term can have an over-bar. For example, a POS expression can have the term A’ + B’ + C’ but not
*A+B+C+’.

Implementation of a POS Expression simply requires ANDing the outputs of two or more OR gates. A sum
term is produced by an OR operation and the product of two or more sum terms is produced by an ANDoperation.

TheStandardPOSForm

So far, you have seen POS expressions in which some of the sum terms do not contain all of the variables
in the domain of the expression.

For example, the expression(A’ + B + C) (A + B + D’) (A + B’ + C’ + D)has a domain made up of the variables
A, B, C, and D. Notice that the complete set of variables in the domain is not represented in efirst two terms of the
expression; that is, D or D’ is missing from the first term and C or C’ is missing from the second term.

A standard POS expression is one in which all the variables in the domainappear in each sum term in the
expression. For example,(A’ + B’ + C + D)(A + B’ + C + D)(A + B + C + D)is a standard POS expression.

ConvertingaSumTermtoStandardPOS

Each sum term in a POS expression that does not contain all the variables in the domain can be expanded
to standard form to include all variables in the domain and their complements. As stated in the following steps, a
→
NonstandardPOSexpressionisconvertedintostandardformusingBooleanalgebrarule (A’.A=0)i.e.,A
variablemultipliedtoitscomplementequals0.
Step 1. Add to each nonstandard product term aterm made upof the product ofthe missing variableand its
complement. This results in two sum terms. As you know, you can add 0to anything without changing itsvalue.

Step2.ApplyruleA+BC=(A+ B)(A+C).

Step 3. Repeat Step 1 until all resulting sum terms contain all variables in the domain in either
complemented or non-complemented form.

Example

ConvertthefollowingBooleanexpressionintostandardPOSform:(A’+B+C)(B’+C+D’)(A+B’+C’+D)

Solution
ThedomainofthisPOSexpressionisA,B,C,D.Takeonetermatatime.

Thefirstterm,A+B+C,ismissingvariableDorD’,soaddD’Dandapplyruleas follows:A’+B+ C = A’ + B + C
+ D’D
=(A’+ B+ C+D’)(A’+ B+ C+ D)

Thesecondterm,B’+C+D’,ismissingvariableAorA’,soaddA’Aandapplyruleasfollows:B’+C+ D’ = B’ + C +
D’ + A’A
 = (A’+ B’+ C+D’)(A+ B’+C +D’)

Thethirdterm,A+B’+C’+D,isalreadyinstandardform.ThestandardPOSformoftheoriginal expression is as
follows:
(A’ +B +C)(B’+ C+D’)(A+ B’+ C’+D)= (A’+ B+ C+D’)(A’+B +C +D) (A’ +B’ +C +D’)(A+ B’ +C +D’)(A +B’ + C’ + D)

CANONICALFORMSOFBOOLEANEXPRESSIONS
Withonevariablex&x.
Withtwovariablesxy,xy,xyandxy.
Withthreevariablesx’y’ z’,x’y’ z,x’ yz’,x’y z,xy’z’,xy’ z,xyz’&xyz.

TheseeightANDtermsarecalledMinterms.

X Y Z MINTERM DESIGNATION
0 0 0 X’Y’Z’ m0
0 0 1 X’Y’Z m1
0 1 0 X’YZ’ m2
0 1 1 X’YZ m3
1 0 0 XY’Z’ m4
1 0 1 XY’Z m5
1 1 0 XYZ’ m6
1 1 1 XYZ m7

Maxtermisthecomplementofitscorrespondingmintermandviceversa

X Y Z MAXTERMS DESIGNATION
0 0 0 X+Y+Z M0
0 0 1 X+Y+Z’ M1
0 1 0 X+Y’+Z M2
0 1 1 X+Y’+Z’ M3
1 0 0 X’+Y+Z M4
1 0 1 X’+Y+Z’ M5
1 1 0 X’+Y’+Z M6
1 1 1 X’+Y’+Z’ M7

ForexamplethefunctionF(forminterms)

x y z F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

F= x’y’ z+ xy’z’ +x yz F =m1+m4 +m7

AnyBooleanfunctioncanbeexpressedasasumofminterms(sumofproducts SOP)orproductofmaxterms (product of
sums POS).
ForexamplethefunctionF(formaxterms)

F’=x’y’z’+x’yz’+x’yz+xy’z+xyz’ The
complement of F’ = (F’)’= F
F=(x+y+z)(x+y’+z)(x+y’+z’)(x’+y+z’)(x’+y’+z) F =
M0M2M3M5M6

Example1
ExpresstheBooleanfunctionF=A+B’Cinasumofminterms(SOP).
Solution
ThetermAismissingtwovariablesbecausethedomainofFis(A,B,C) A = A(B
+ B’) = AB + AB’ because B + B’ = 1
BC missing A, so
B’C(A + A’) = ABC + A’B’C
AB(C + C’) = ABC + ABC’
AB’(C+C’)=AB’C+AB’C’
F=ABC+ABC’+AB’C+AB’C’+ABC+A’B’C
Because A+ A= A
F=ABC+ABC’+AB’C+AB’C’+A’B’C
F=m7+m6+m5+m4+m1 In
short notation
F(A,B,C)=Σ(1,4,5,6,7)
F’(A, B, C)=Σ(0,2,3)

➔
The complement of a function expressed as the sum of minterms equalto the sum of minterms missing
from the original function.

TruthtableforF=A+B’C
A B C B’ B’C F
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
2 0 1 0 0 0 0
3 0 1 1 0 0 0
4 1 0 0 1 0 1
5 1 0 1 1 1 1
6 1 1 0 0 0 1
7 1 1 1 0 0 1

Example2
ExpressF=xy+x’zinaproductofmaxtermsform.

Solution
F=xy+x’z=(xy+x’)(xy+z)=(x+x’)(y+x’)(x+z)(y+z)rememberx+x’= 1
F=(y+x’)(x+z)(y+ z)
F=(x’+y +zz’)(x+yy’+ z)(xx’+y+ z)
F = (x‘+y +z)(x’+y +z’)(x+ y+ z)(x +y’+ z)(x+y +z)(x’ +y + z)F =(x’+ y+ z)(x’+ y + z’)(x +
y + z)(x + y’ + z)
F=M4M5M0M2F(x,y,z)=Π(0,2,4,5)
F(x,y,z)=Π(1,3,6,7)
Thecomplementofafunctionexpressedastheproductofmaxtermsequaltotheproductof maxterms
missing from the original function.
Toconvertfromonecanonicalformtoanother,interchangethesymbolsΣ,Πandlistthosenumbersmissing from the
original form.

F=M4M5M0M2=m1+m3+m6+m7 F(x, y, z)
= Π(0, 2, 4, 5) = Σ(1, 3, 6, 7)

8. KarnaughMap
 Karnaugh map method gives us a systematic approach for simplifying a Boolean expression.
KarnaughmapmethodwasfirstproposedbyVeitchandmodifiedbyKarnaugh,henceitisknownas Karnaugh Map
or K-map.
n
K-mapcontainsboxescalledcells. Eachofthecell representsoneofthe2 possibleproductsthat
2 3
canbeformed fromn variables.A twovariablemzpcontains 2 =4cells,athreevariablecontains2=8
4
cellsandfourvariablecontains2 =16cells. Thefollowingfigureshows theoutline of1,2, 3 and 4
variable
maps.

The product term(minterm) assigned to the cells of K-map bylabelling each row and column is
shownin1,2,3and4variablemapandtheproductterm(minterm)correspondingtoeachcellisshown in the
below figure (a),(b),(c) and (d).

Thelabellingof therowsand columns of a1, 2, 3and 4 variableK-map usingGraycodeand the

productterms(minterm)correspondingtoeachcellisshowninthefigure(a)(b) (c)and (d).

The sum term(maxterm) assigned to the cells of K-map by labelling each row and column is
shownin1,2,3and4variablemapandthesumterm(maxterm)correspondingtoeachcellisshownin the below
figure (a),(b),(c) and (d).
 Thelabellingoftherowsandcolumnsofa1,2,3 and4variableK-mapusingGraycodeandthe sum
terms(maxterm) corresponding to each cell is shown in the figure(a) (b) (c) and (d)

PlottingaKarnaughMap

RepresentationoftruthtableonK-map
TherepresentationofatwovariabletruthtableonaKarnaughmapisshown below.

TherepresentationofathreevariabletruthtableonaKarnaughmapisshown below

TherepresentationofafourvariabletruthtableonaKarnaughmapisshown below
RepresentationstandardSOPonK-
mapExample 1:
’ ’’
PlotBooleanexpressionY=ABC+ABC+ABContheKarnaughmap

Example2:
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
PlotBooleanexpressionY=A BC D +AB’CD +A BCD +AB CD+ABC Donthekarnaugh map.
GroupingCellsforSimplification

1. GroupingTwoadjacentPairs&GroupingFouradjacentones(Quad)
2. GroupingEightadjacentones(Octet)
SimplificationofSumofProductsExpression(SOP)

Example1:

MinimizetheBooleanexpressionY=A’BC’D’+A’BC’D+ABC’D’+ABC’D+AB’C’D+A’B’CD’onKarnaughmap
 ’ ’ ’ ’
Y=A B CD +AC’D+BC

Example2:

SimplifythelogicfunctionspecifiedbythetruthtableusingKarnaughmapmethod.Yis the
output variable and A,B,C are the input variable
 ’ ’
Y=B C +BC

9. DON’TCARECONDITIONS
• Anoutputcondition thatcanberegardedaseither high or low

ThelogicalsumofthemintermsassociatedwithaBooleanfunctionspecifiestheconditionsunder which
the function is equal to 1. The function is equal to 0 for the rest of the minterms. This pair of conditions
assumes that all the combinations of the values for the variables of the function are valid. In practice,
insomeapplicationsthefunctionisnotspecifiedforcertain combinationsofthevariables.Asan example, the
four-bit binary code for the decimal digits has six combinations that are not used and consequently are
considered to be unspecified. Functions that have unspecified outputs for some input
combinationsarecalledincompletelyspecifiedfunctions.Inmost applications,wesimplydon’tcarewhat value
is assumed by the function for the unspecified minterms. For this reason, it is customary to call the
unspecified minterm of a function don’t care conditions. These don’t care conditions can be used on amap
to provide further simplification of the Boolean expression.

A don’t care minterm is a combination of variables whose logical value is not specified. Such a
minterm cannot be marked with a 1 in the map, because it would require that the function always be a1
for such a combination. Likewise putting a 0 on the square requires the function to be 0. To distinguish
don’t care condition from 1’s or the 0’s an X is used. Thus an X inside a square in the map indicates that
we don’t care whether the value of 0 or 1 is assigned to F for the particular minterm.
 In choosingthe adjacent squares to simplifythe function in a map the don’t care minterms maybe
assumed to be either 0 0r 1. When simplifying the function, we can choose to include each don’t care
minterm with either the 1’s or the 0’s depending on which combination gives the simplest expression.

ExampleProblem:

Simplify the Boolean function F(w,x,y,z) = ∑(1,3,7,11,15) which has the don’t care conditions
d(w,x,y,z) = ∑(0,2,5).

Solution

The minterms of F are the variable combinations that make the function equal to 1. The minterms
of “d” are don’t care minterms that maybe assigned either 0 or 1. The map simplification is shown in fig.
the minterms of F are marked by1’s. Those of d are marked byX’s and remaining squares are filled with
0’s.

To get simplified expression in sum-of- product form we must include all five 1’s in the map but
we may

In thepartofthediagram, don’tcareminterm 0 and 2 is included theunits1’sand thesimplified function is

now

F=yz+w’x’

Intheseconddon’tcareminterm5isincludedwiththe1’s,andthesimplifiedfunctionisnow F = yz +

w’z

NANDANDNOR IMPLIMENTATION
 Digital circuits are frequently constructed with NAND and NOR gates rather than with AND and
OR gates.NANDand NOR gatesareeasierto fabricate.So rules and procedures havebeen developedfor the
conversion from Boolean functions given in terms of AND, OR and NOT into equivalent NAND and
NOR logic diagrams.

Twolevel NAND-NAND implementation

To facilitate the conversion to NAND logic, it is convenient to define an alternative graphic

symbol for the gate. The alternate representation of NAND gate is shown in fig. according to De
Morgan’s theorem

Stepstobe followed
1. Simplifythegivenlogic expressionand convert it intheSOP form
2. Drawthelogic circuitusingAND,ORandNOT gate
3. ReplaceeveryAND gatebyaNAND gate, EveryOR gatebyabubbled OR gate and NOT gate by a
NAND inverter.
4. Replacebubbled-OR gate byNANDgate.

ExampleProblem:

Implementthe followingBooleanequationusingonlyNAND gatesY=AB+CDE+F

Solution
Step1:realizationusingbasic gates

Step 2: replace
AND →NAND
OR →bubbled – OR
NOT →NANDinverter
Step3: draw thelogiccircuit usingonlyNANDgates

MultilevelNANDcircuits

The standard form of expressing Boolean function results in a two-level implementation. If has
digital system three or more levels then the most common procedurein the design of multilevel circuits is
to express the Boolean function in terms of AND, OR and compliments operations.

Thegeneral procedureforconvertingmultilevelAND – ORlogicdiagramintoanall NANDlogic

diagram is as follows

1. ConvertallANDgatesto NAND gates withAND–invertgraphicsymbols

2. ConvertallORgatestoNANDgates withinvert –ORgraphicsymbol.
3. Checkallthebubblesinthediagram.Foreverybubblethatisnotcompensatedbyothersmall circle along
the same line insert an inverter or compliment the input literal.

ExampleProblem:
ImplementthefollowingBoolean expressionusingNANDgatesonlyF=A(CD+B)+BC
Solution:

Step1:DrawlogicdiagramusingAND,ORandNOTgateasshowninthefig.
 NOR IMPLEMENTATION

TheNOR operation is thedual ofthe ANDoperation. Therefore all procedures and rules for NOR
logic are the dual for the corresponding procedures and rules developed for NAND logic. The NOR gate
is another universal gate that can be used to implement any Boolean function. The alternative
representation of NOR gate according to demorgan’s theorem is shown below.

Steps to befollowed

1. Simplythegivenlogicexpressionand convertit intoproduct ofsum(POS) form.

2. Drawthe AND–OR-NOT realization.
3. Replaceevery ORgateby NOR,every ANDgateby abubbledANDgateandeverinerterby a NOR
inverter.
4. Drawthefinal circuit usingonlythe NORgates.

ExampleProblem:

Implementthe following functionbyusingNORgates Y=(A’+B+C)(A+B)D

Solution:

Step1: ImplementthegivenBooleanfunctionbyusingAND,ORandNOTgateasshownbelow.

Step2:
Replace OR → NOR
AND →invertAND
NOT →NORinvert
Step3: Replaceinvert ANDgatebyNORgate shown in fig.

MULTILEVELNORIMPLEMENTATION

The procedure for converting a multilevel AND-OR diagram to an all NOR diagram is similar to
multilevel NAND implements. The following steps are followed for multilevel-NOR implementation

Step1.implimentthelogicfunction usingAND,OR andNOTgate.

Step2.convertallANDgatestoNORgateswithinvert-ANDgraphicsymbol. Step

3.convert all OR gates with OR invert graphic symbols.

Step 4.Check all the bubbles in the diagram. For every bubble that is not compensated by another
smallcircle along the same line, insert an inverter or compliment the input literal.

ExampleProblem:
ImplementthefollowingBoolean functionusingNOR gatesY=(AB’+A’B)(C+D’)
Solution
Step1:Implementthe BooleanfunctionusingAND,ORandNOT gateasshowninfig.

Step2:

Replace
 AND →invert-ANDsymbol
OR → NOR gate

Step 3:Check each line has even number of bubbles. If any line does not have even number of bubblesthe
insert bubble (i.e. input A, B’,A’, Bhas odd number of bubbles. Therefore applythe inverted inputs to
make even numbers of bubbles)

10. QUINE-MCCLUSKEY(OR)TABULATIONMETHOD
11.

Definition:Itisusedtosimplifythe Boolean expressionformore variables.

The map methodf implication is convenient method as long as the numbers of variables do not
exceed fivevariables. If the number of variable increases, it is difficult to make the simplification of
expression. F the number of variables increases it is difficult to make the simplification of expression. To
avoid this complex and to meet this need W.V. Quine and E.J. McCluskey developed an exact tabulation
method to simplify the Boolean expression. This method is called as tabulation method or Quine
McCluskey method.

Thesummarystepsareasfollowsto simplifytheBooleanexpression.

Step1.Listallmintermsinthebinary form.
Step2.Separatethenumberofgroups accordingtothenumberof1’s.
Step3.Compareeachbinarynumberwitheverygroupintheadjacentnexthighestcategory
groupandtheydifferonlyonebitposition.Putcheckmarkifcomparisonispossible(-)andcopy
 remainingterminthenextcolumn.Put(√)markforeverycomparison.Theessentialprime implicants are
identified if they have no tick mark.

Step4.Applythesameprocessdescribedinstep3fortheresultantcolumnandcontinuethe cycles until a

single pass through cycle yieldsfurther elimination of literals.

Step5.Fromprimeimplicantchart

(a) Theprimeimplicantsshould berepresentedinrowsand eachmintermofthefunctionina column.

(b) Crosses(X)shouldbeplacedineachrowtoshowthecompositionofmintermthatmakesthe prime
implicants.
(c) Acompletedprimeimplicantstableshouldbeinspectedforcolumnscontainingonlyasingle cross in their
columns are called essential prime implicants.

Step6.Gettingthesimplifiedexpressionaftertheabovestep

Example Problem:Simplifythe Booleanfunctionbyusingtabulation method.

F(a,b,c,d)=∑m(0,1,2,5,6,7,8,9,10,14)

Solution

ColumnI ColumnII ColumnIII

Group
abcd abcd abcd
Group0 0 0000√ 0,1 000√ 0,1,8,9-00-
1 0001√ 0,2 00-0√ 0,2,8,10-0-0
Group 1 2 0010√ 0,8 -000√ 0,8,1,-00-
Numberof1’sone 8 1000√ 1,5 0-01√ 0,8,2,10-0-0
5 0101√ 1,9 -001√ 2,6,10,14-10
Group 2 6 0110√ 2,6 0-10√ 2,10,6,14-10
Numberof1’stwo 9 1001√ 2,10 -0-10√
10 1010√ 8,9 100√
7 0111√ 8,10 10-0√
14 1110√ 5,7 01-1
Group 3
6,7 011-
Numberof1’sthree
6,14 =110√
10,14 1-10√

Table:Primeimplicant table

Primeimplicants minterms
0 1 2 5 6 7 8 9 10 14
1,5 d’c’d X X
5,7 a’bd X X
6,7 a’bc X X
0,1,8,9* b’c’ X X X X
0,2,8,10 b’d’ X X X X
2,10,6,14* cd’ X X X X
√ √
Note that the cells (5,7), (1,5), (6,7),(0,1,8,9),(0,2,8,10) and (2,10,6,14)are prime implicants. The
prime implicants table can be plotted as shown in table above. All the unticked terms in the above
simplificationaregivenasprimeimplicantofthisBooleanexpression,theseprimeimplicantschartis
 shown in table. In the chart all the specified implicants form columns
across is putin the row of eachprime implicant under the columns ofthe
implicants which it covers.

A tickmarkisplacedagainstevery essential primeimplicant

(whichcolumncontainsasinglecross(X). the sum of essential prime
implicantsF = b’c’ + cd’

The prime implicants which covers the minterms 0,1,8,9 and

2,10,6,14 therefore in orderto covertheremainingminterms,thereduced
prime implicants chart is formed as follows.

Tocoverthemintermstheprimeimplicants(6,7) and(0,2,8,10) can be

selected in additionto theessentialprime implicantsforobtainingthe minimal
Boolean expression is given

F=b’c’+cd’+a’bc+b’d’

Reducedprimeimplicant table

Minterms
Primeimplicants
0 1 2 5 6 7 8 9 10 14
1,5 a’c’d X X
5,7 a’bd X X
6,7 a’bc X X
0,2,8,10* b’d’ X X X X
√ √ √ √ √

QUESTIONS

Part:A
1. EmpiricalformulatofindthenumberofparitybitsintheHammingcodegeneration.
2. PointoutthegraycodeforgivenBinaryNumbersi. (10101101)2ii. (1010111000)2
3. Performtheoperation9–3 using2’s complement.
4. Convertthegivennon-canonicalSOP intocanonicalform. F =AB’+AC+B’C
5. Brieftheredundantliteralrule.

Part:B
1. Assessthefollowingconversions
a. (12AEF)16to(?)10and(?)2
b. (11011.0101)2to(?)8and(?)16
c. (358.255)10to(?)8and(?)16.
2. Supposethatanincomingmessage11110101111isreceived.Detecttheerror bitand
Correct it with even parity scheme at the receiver end.
3. Pointout theCanonicalformforthegivenSOPandPOSfunctions.
a. F(A,B,C,D)=AB+A’BD+A’CD’
b. F(A,B,C)=(A+B’)(A+ C’)
c. F(A,B,C)=A(A+ C’)(A+ B)

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 4. Reducethegivenfunctions usingBooleanalgebratechniques.
a. AB+ A(B+ C)+ B(B+C)
b. A’B+B(A+C)’+A(B+C)’
c. A’BC+AB’C’+A’B’C’+AB’C+ABC.

REFERENCES:
1. MorisMano,“DigitalComputer Fundamentals”TMH3rdEdition
2. http://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_logical_organization/number_system_conv
ersion.htm
3. http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/binary/signed-binary-numbers.html
4. HAMMING,R.→.“ErrorDetectingandError Correcting Codes.”Bell System
Tech.Jour.,29
(1950):147–160.
5. A.PGODSE,D.A.GODSE.”DigitalSystems”.TechnicalPublications.Pune.
6. http://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_logical_organization/binary_codes.htm
7. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-
contents/IIScBANG/Digital%20Systems/Digita
l%20Systems.pdf

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