SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CIRCUIT THEORY – SEEA1201

UNIT-I- DC CIRCUITS
 UNIT – I

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

Electrical Quantities, Ohm’s law, Kirchoff’s laws, Resistors in series and

parallel combinations, Current and Voltage division rules, Node and Mesh
Analysis.

ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES – DEFINITIONS,

SYMBOLS AND UNITS
• Charge:
A body is said to be charged positively, if it has deficit of electrons. It is said
to be charged negatively if it has excess of electrons. The charge is measured
in Coulombs and denoted by Q (or) q.
1 Coulomb = Charge on 6.28×1018 electrons.
• Atom:
To understand the basic concepts of electric current, we should know the
Modern Electron Theory. Consider the matter which is in the form of solid,
liquid (or) gas. Smallest particle of matter is molecule. Minute Particles are
called molecules, which are themselves made up of still minute particles
known as Atoms.

Atom: Minute tiny Particles with the central Part Nucleus.

Atom

Proton Electrons Neutrons

Figure 1.1
These are the types of tiny Particles in an Atom.
Protons: It is charged with positive charge.
Neutron: It is uncharged and hence it is neural.
Electron: It is revolving around nucleus. It is charged with small and constant
amount of negative charge.

In an Atom, No of electrons = No of Protons

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• Electric Potential:
When a body is charged, either electrons are supplied on it (or) removed from
it. In both cases the work is done. The ability of the charged body to do work
is called electric potential. The charged body has the capacity to do, by
moving the other charges by either attraction (or) repulsion.
The greater the capacity of a charged body to do work, the greater is its
electric potential. And the work done, to charge a body to 1 Colomb is the
measure of electric potential.
Work done W
Electric potential, V= =
Charge Q

W = Work done per unit charge.

Q = Charge measured in Coulombs.

Unit of electric potential is Joules / Coulomb (or) Volt. If W = 1 joule; Q = 1

Coulomb, then V = 1/1 = 1 Volt.
A body is said to have an electric potential of 1 Volt, if one Joule of work
is done to charge a body to one Coulomb. Hence greater the Joules / Coulomb
on a charged body, greater is electric potential.

• Potential Difference:
The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called potential
difference.
Consider two charged bodies A and B having Potentials of 5 Volts and 3
Volts respectively.

A=+5V B=+3V

Potential Difference is +2v.

Unit of potential difference is Volts.
Potential difference is sometimes called Voltage.
• Electric Current:
Flow of free electrons through a conductor is called electric current. Its unit is
Ampere (or) Coulomb / sec.
Charge(q) q
Current, (I) = = Coulombs /
Sec Time(t) t
dq
In differential form, i = Coulombs / Sec
dt
Consider a conducting material like metal, say Copper. A large number
of free electrons are available. They move from one Atom to the other at
random, before an electric force is applied. When an electric potential

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difference is applied across the metallic conductors, free electrons start

moving towards the positive terminal of the cell. This continuous flow of
electrons forms electric current. According to modern electronic theory, the
direction of conventional current is form positive terminal to negative
terminal through the external circuit.

Flow of electrons
A B
Flow of
conventional Current

+ –

Figure 1.2

Thus, a wire is said to carry a current of 1 Ampere when charge flows

through it at the rate of one Coulomb per second.

• Resistance:
Consider a conductor which is provided some potential difference. The free
electrons start moving in a particular direction. While moving, the free
electrons may collide with some Atoms (or) Molecules. They oppose the flow
of electrons. Resistance is defined as the property of the substance due to
which restricts the flow of electrons through the conductor. Resistance may,
also be defined as the physical property of the substance due to which it
opposes (or) restricts the flow of electricity (i.e. electrons) through it. Its unit
is Ohms.
A wire is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm if a potential difference of
1V across the ends causes current of 1 Amp to flow through it (or) a wire is
said to have a resistance of 1 ohm if it releases 1 Joule, when a current of 1A
flows through it.

• Laws of Resistance:
The electrical resistance (R) of a metallic conductor depends upon the various
Factors as given below,

(i) It is directly proportional to length l, ie, R α l

(ii) It is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of the
l
Conductor, ie, R α
A
(iii) It depends upon the nature of the material of the conductor.
(iv) It depends upon the temperature of the conductor.

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From the First three points and assuming the temperature to remain constant,
we get,
l
Rα
A
1
R= ρ
A
ρ (‘Rho’) is a constant of proportionality called Resistivity (or) Specific
Resistance of the material of the conductor. The value of ρ depend upon the
nature of the material of the conductor.

• Specific Resistance (or) Resistivity:

1
Resistance of a wire is given by R= ρ
A

If l = 1metre, A =1m2 then, R = ρ . The resistance offered by a wire of length

1 metre and across sectional area of Cross-section of 1m2 is called the
Resistivity of the material of the wire.

Current

l =1m A = l m2

Figure 1.3
If a cube of one meter side is taken instead of wire, ρ is defined as below.,
Let l = 1 metre, A = 1 m2, then R = ρ. “Hence, the resistance between
the opposite faces of 1 metre cube of the given material is called
the resistivity of that material”. The unit of resistivity is ohm-metre
RA Ωm2
[ρ= = = Ωm(ohm-metre) ]
l m
lm
Current

lm

Figure 1.4

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• Conductance (or) Specific Conductance:

Conductance is the inducement to the flow of current. Hence, Conductance is
the reciprocal of resistance. It is denoted by symbol G.
1 A A
G= = =σ
R ρl l
G is measured in mho Symbol for its unit is ( U )
1
σ=
ρ

Here, σ is called the Conductivity (or) Specific Conductance of the material

• Conductivity (or ) Specific Conductance:

Conductivity is the property (or) nature of the material due to which it allows
flow of current through it.
A l
G= σ (or) σ =G
l A
Substituting the units of various quantities we get
mho*m
σ= =mho/metre
m2
 The S.I unit of Conductivity is mho/metre.

• Electric Power:
The rate at which the work is done in an electric circuit is called electric
power.
Work done in an electric circuit
Electric Power =
Time
When voltage is applied to a circuit, it causes current to flow through it. The
work done inmoving the electrons in a unit time is called Electric Power. The
unit of Electric Power is Joules/sec (or) Watt. P = VI = I 2 R = V 2 / R

• Electrical Energy:
The total work done in an electric circuit is called electrical energy.

ie, Electrical Energy = (Electrical Power)*(Time)

V2
Electrical Energy = I2 Rt = t
R

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Electrical Energy is measured in Kilowatt hour (kwh)

Problem 1.1 The resistance of a conductor 1 mm2 in cross section and 20 m

long is 0.346 Ω. Determine the specific resistance of the conducting material.

Given Data
Area of cross-section A = 1 mm2
Length, l = 20 m
Resistance, R = 0.346 Ω
l
Formula used: Specific resistance of the Conducting Material, R =
A
RA
=
l
Solution: Area of Cross-section, A = 1mm2
= 1 * 10−6 m2

1*10−6 * 0.346
= = 1.738*10 -8 Ωm
20

Specific Resistance of the conducting Material,  = 1.738*10−8 Ωm.

Problem 1.2 A Coil consists of 2000 turns of copper wire having a cross-
sectional area of 1 mm2. The mean length per turn is 80 cm and resistivity of
copper is 0.02 μΩm at normal working temperature. Calculate the resistance
of the coil.

Given data:
No of turns = 2000
Length / turn = 80 cm =0.8 m
Resistivity, = 0.02 µΩm = 0.02*10-6 Ωm = 2*10-8 Ωm
Cross sectional area of the wire, A= 1mm2 = 1*10-6m2

Solution:
Mean length of the wire, l = 2000*0.8 =1600 m.
l
We know that, R = 
A
2 *10−8 *1600
Substituting the Values, R = = 32Ω
1*10−6
Resistance of the coil = 32Ω

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Problem 1.3 A wire of length 1m has a resistance of 2Ω. What is the

resistance of the second wire, whose specific resistance is double that of first,
if the length of wire is 3m and the diameter is double that of first?

Given Data:
For the first wire: l1 = 1m, R1 = 2 Ω, 1 =  (say)
d1 = d (say )

For the Second wire: l2 = 3m, d2 = 2d, ρ2=2 ρ

Solution:
l1 ρ*1 d
R1 = ρ1 = 2 [Radius of the wire =  r 2 , where r= ]
A1 πd 2
4
4ρ  1
ie, R 1 = 2 = 1 2 …………….. (1)
πd d
4

R = ρ l2 = 2ρ*3 = 6ρ (2)
2 2
A 2 π(2d)2 πd2
4
Dividing equation (1) by (2),
4  d 2 4 R
*  = 1
 d 2 6 6 R
2
6R1 6* 2
R = = =3Ω
2
4 4
R2 = 3 Ω

The Resistance of the second wire, R2 = 3 Ω

Problem 1.4 A Rectangular copper strip is 20 cm long, 0.1 cm wide and 0.4
cm thick. Determine the resistance between (i) opposite ends and (ii) opposite
sides. The resistivity of copper is 1.7*10 -6 Ωcm.

Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6

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(i) Opposite Ends

Wide, w = 0.1cm
Thickness, t = 0.4cm
Length, l = 20cm
(ii) Opposite Sides:
Wide, w = 0.1cm
Thickness, t = 20 cm
Length, l = 0.4 cm
(a) Area = w * t = 0.1* 0.4 = 0.04cm2

l 1.7 *10−6 * 20
R1 = = = 0.85*10−3 Ω
A 0.04
R1 = 0.85 m [Opposite ends, referring to Figure 1.5]

Area, A = w * t = 0.1* 20 = 20cm2

1.7 *10−6 * 0.4
R2 = = 0.34 *10−6 Ω [Opposite Sidesi referring to Figure 1.6]
2
R2 = 0.34 Ω

Problem 1.5 A silver wire of length 12m has a resistance of 0.2Ω. Find the
specific resistivity of the material. The cross-sectional area of the wire is
0.01cm2.
l
R=  length, l =12m
A
Resistance, R= 0.2Ω
A = 0.01cm2
RA 0.2 * 0.01*10−4
= =
l 12
 = 1.688*10 Ω m
−8

OHM’S LAW AND ITS LIMITATIONS

The relationship between DC potential difference (V) current (I) and

Resistance (R) in a DC circuit was first discovered by the scientist George
Simon Ohm, is called Ohm’s law.
• Statement:
The ratio of potential difference between any two points of a conductor to the
current following between them is constant, provided the physical condition
(eg. Temperature, etc.) do not change.

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V
ie, = Constant
I

(or)

V
=R
I
V = I * R
Where, R is the resistance between the two points of the conductor.
It can also be stated as, provided Resistance is kept constant, current is
directly proportional to the potential difference across the ends of the
conductor.
V2
Power, P = V * I = I R =
2

R
• Illustration:
Let the potential difference between points A and B be V volts and current
V
flowing be I Amp. Then, = Constant ,
I
V
= R (say)
I

I R
A B
V
Figure 1.7

We know that, if the voltage is doubled (2V), the current flowing will also be
V
doubled (2I). So, the ratio remains the same (ie, R). Also when voltage is
I
measured in volts, current in ampere, then resistance will be in ohms.

• Graphical representation of Ohm’s law

[Slope line of the graph represents the resistance]

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Voltage
(volts)

Slope = Resistance

I (amps)
Figure 1.8

• Limitations in ohm’s law:

(i) Ohm’s law does not apply to all non-metallic conductors. For eg.
Silico Carbide.
(ii) It also does not apply to non-linear devices such as Zener diode, etc.
(iii) Ohm’s law is true for metal conductor at constant temperature. If the
temperature changes the law is not applicable.

• Problems based on ohm’s law:

Problem 1.6. An electric heater draws 8A from 250V supply. What is the
power rating? Also find the resistance of the heater element.

Given data:

Current, I = 8A
Voltage, V = 250V

Solution:

Power rating, P = VI = 8* 250 = 2000Watt

V 250
Resistance (R) = = = 31.25 Ω
I 8

Problem 1.7 What will be the current drawn by a lamp rated at 250V, 40W,
connected to a 230 V supply.
Given Data:
Rated Power = 40 W
Rated Voltage = 250 V
Supply Voltage = 230 V

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Solution:

Resistance,
V 2 2502
R= = = 1562.5 Ω
P 40
V
Current, I = = 230 = 0.1472 A
P 1562.5

Problem 1.8 A Battery has an emf of 12.8 volts and supplies a current of 3.24
A. What is the resistance of the circuit? How many Coulombs leave the
battery in 5 minutes?

Solution:
V 12.8
Circuit Resistance, R = =4Ω=
I 3.24
Charge flowing in 5 minutes = Current × time in seconds
Charge flowing in 5 minutes = 3.24×5×60 = 960 Coulomb

Problem 1.9 If a resistor is to dissipate energy at the rate of 250W, find the
resistance for a terminal voltage of 100V.

Given data:
Power = 250W
Voltage = 100V
Solution:
V 2 1002
Resistance, R = = = 40 Ω
 250
R = 40 Ω .
Problem 1.10 A voltmeter has a resistance of, 20,200 Ω. When connected in
series with an external resistance across a 230 V supply, the instrument reads
160 V. What is the value of external resistance?

R 70V

230V
G
160V

Figure 1.9
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The voltage drop across external resistance, R

VR = 230 −160 = 70V

Circuit current, I = 160 = 1 A
20, 000 125
We know that, V = IR
70 = IR
1
70 =  R
125
R = 8750 Ω

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
• Introduction:

The closed path followed by direct Current (DC) is called a DC Circuit A d.c
circuit essentially consist of a source of DC power (eg. Battery, DC
generator, etc.) the conductors used to carry current and the load. The load for
a DC circuit is usually a resistance. In a DC circuit, loads (i.e, resistances)
may be connected in series, parallel, series – parallel. Hence the resistor has
to be connected in the desired way for getting the desired resistance.
Resistances in series (or) series combination
The circuit in which resistances are connected end to end so that there is one
path for the current flow is called series circuit. The voltage source is
connected across the free ends. [A and B]

R1 R2 R3 RT
A I B A I B
V2 V3
V1
V V
+ – + –

Figure 1.10

In the above circuit, there is only one closed path, so only one current flows
through all the elements. In other words, if the Current is same through all the
resistors, the combination is called series combination.

• To find equivalent Resistance:

Let, V = Applied voltage

I = Source current = Current through each element

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V1, V2, V3 are the voltage across R1, R2 and R3 respectively.

By Ohms law, V1 = IR1

V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3
But V = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I ( R1 + R2 + R3 )
V=I ( R1 + R2 + R3 )
V = IRT
V
=R
T
I
( )
The ratio of V I is the total resistance between points A and B and is called
the total (or) equivalent resistance of the three resistances
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
1 1 1 1
Also, = + + (In terms of conductance)
GT G1 G2 G3

 Equivalent resistance (RT) is the sum of all individual resistances.

• Concepts of series circuit:

i. The current is same through all elements.
ii. The voltage is distributed. The voltage across the resistor is directly
proportional to the current and resistance.
iii. The equivalent resistance (RT) is greater than the greatest individual
resistance of that combination.
iv. Voltage drops are additive.
v. Powers are additive.
vi. The applied voltage is equals to the sum of different voltage drops.

Voltage Division Technique: (or) To find V1, V2, V3 interms of V and R1,
R2, R3:

Equivalent Resistance, RT = R1 + R2 +R3

V V
By ohm’s low, I = =
RT R1 + R2 + R3

V VR1
V1 = IR1 = R1 =
RT R1 + R2 + R3

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 V VR2
V2 = IR2 = R2 =
RT R1 + R2 + R3

 Voltage across any resistance in the series circuit,

Rx
 Vx = V
RT
Note: If there are n resistors each value of R ohms in series, then the total
Resistance is given by,
RT = n * R
• Applications:
 When variable voltage is given to the load, a variable resistance
(Rheostat) is connected in series with the load. Example: Fan
regulator is connected in series with the fan.
 The series combination is used where many lamp of low voltages are
to be operated on the main supply. Example: Decoration lights.
 When a load of low voltage is to be operated on a high voltage supply, a
fixed value of resistance is connected in series with the load.
• Disadvantage of Series Circuit:
 If a break occurs at any point in the circuit, no current will flow and
the entire circuit becomes useless.
 If 5 numbers of lamps, each rated 230 volts are to be connected in
series circuit, then the supply voltage should be 5 x 230 = 1150
volts. But voltage available for lighting circuit in each and every
house is only 230 V. Hence, series circuit is not practicable for
lighting circuits.
 Since electrical devices have different current ratings, they cannot be
connected in series for efficient operation.
• Problems based on series combination:
Problem 1.11 Three resistors 30 Ω, 25 Ω, 45 Ω are connected in series across
200V. Calculate (i) Total resistance (ii) Current (iii) Potential difference
across each element.

Figure 1.11
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(i) Total Resistance (RT)

RT = R1 + R2 + R3
RT = 30 + 25 + 45 = 100 Ω
V 200
(ii) Current, I = = =2A
RT 100
(iii) Potential difference across each element,
V1 = IR1 = 2 * 30 = 60 V
V2 = IR2 = 2 * 25 = 50 V
V3 = IR3 = 2 * 45 = 90 V
Problem 1.12 Find the value of ‘R’ in the circuit diagram, given below.

50 Ω 10 Ω R
I
100 V

200 V Figure 1.12

We know that, V1 = IR1

I = V1 / R1 = 100/50 = 2 A
Similarly, V2 = IR2 = 2 * 10 = 20 V

Total voltage drop, V = V1 + V2 + V3

V3 = V – (V1 + V2 ) = 200 – (100 + 20)
V3 = 80 V
V3 = IR3 , R3 = V3 /I = 80/2 = 40 Ω
 R3 = 40 Ω

Problem 1.13 A 100W, 200V bulb is put in series with a 60W bulb across a
supply. What will be the current drawn? What will be the voltage across the
60W bulb? What will be the supply voltage?
100W 60W

I 200V

V
Figure 1.13
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Power dissipated in the first bulb, P1 = V1 I
Current, I = P1 / V1 = 100/200 = 0.5 A
Power dissipated in the second bulb, P 2 = V2I
Voltage across the 60 W bulb,
P 60
V = 2 = = 120V
2
I 0.5
The supply voltage, V = V1 + V2 = 200 +120
V = 320V
The supply voltage, V = 320 V.
Problem 1.14 An incandescent lamp is rated for 110V, 100W. Using suitable
resistor how can you operate this lamp on 220V mains.

100W, 110V R

+ –
220 V

Figure 1.14

Power 100
Rated current of the lamp, I = = = 0.909A, I = 0.909A
Voltage 110
For satisfactory operation of the lamp, Current of 0.909A should flow.
When the voltage across the lamp is 110V, then the remaining voltage must
be across R
Supply voltage = V = 220 Volts
Voltage across R = V −110 Volts
ie, VR = 220 −110 = 110V
By ohm’s law, VR = IR
110 = 0.909 R
R = 121 Ω

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Problem 1.15 The lamps in a set of decoration lights are connected in series.
If there are 20 lamps and each lamp has resistance of 25Ω, calculate the total
resistance of the set of lamp and hence calculate the current taken from a
supply of 230 volts.
Given Data: Supply voltage, V = 230 volts
Resistance of each lamp, R = 25 Ω
No of lamps in series, n = 20

Solution: Total Resistance, RT = n * R = 20 * 25

RT = 500 Ω

V 230
Current from supply. I = = = 0.46 A
RT 500
Problem 1.16 The field coil of a d.c generator has a resistance of 250Ω and is
supplied from a 220 V source. If the current in the field coil is to be limited to
0.44 A. Calculate the resistance to be connected in series with the coil.

Given Data: Source voltage, V = 220 volts, I = 0.44 A

Field coil resistance, Rf = 250 Ω

Solution: Let the resistance in series with Rf be R in Ohms.

Total resistance, RT = Rf + R = 250 + R
Current, I = 0.44 A
V 220
By ohm’s law, R = = = 500 Ω
T
I 0.44
250 + R = 500 Ω
R = 500 – 250 = 250 Ω
R = 250 Ω

Resistance in Parallel (or) Parallel Combination

If one end of all the resistors are joined to a common point and the other ends
are joined to another common point, the combination is said to be parallel
combination. When the voltage source is applied to the common points, the
voltage across each resistor will be same. Current in the each resistor is
different and is given by ohm’s law.
Let R1, R2, R3 be three resistors connected between the two common
terminals A and B, as shown in the Figure 1.15(a)..

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I1 R1

I2 R2
A B
I3 R3 RT = R

I
I
+ –
+ – V
V I = V/R

Figure 1.15

V
I = (1)
R

Let I1, I2, I3 are the currents through R1, R2, R3 respectively.
V By ohm’s law,

 V V V  (2)
 I1 = , I2 = , I3 = 
 R1 R2 R3 

Total current is the sum of three individual currents,

IT = I = I1 + I2 + I3 (3)
Substituting the above expression for the current in equation (3),
V V V V
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R2 R3

Referring to Figure (1.15(b)), RT = R

1 1 1 1 1
= = + + (4)
R RT R1 R2 R3
Hence, in the case of parallel combination the reciprocal of the equivalent
resistance is equal to the sum of reciprocals of individual resistances.
Multiplying both sides of equation (4) by V2, we get
V2 V2 V2 V3
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
ie, Power dissipated by R = Power dissipated by R1 + Power dissipated by R2
+ Power dissipated by R3

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We know that reciprocal of Resistance is called as conductance.
Conductance = 1 / Resistance
G = 1/R]
Equation (4) can be written as,
G = G1 + G2 + G3

• Concepts of Parallel Circuit:

• Voltage is same across all the elements.
• All elements will have individual currents, depends upon the
resistance of element.
• The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always lesser than the
smallest of the resistance.
• If n resistance each of R are connected in parallel then,

1 n
=
RT R
(or)
R
R =
T n
• Powers are additive.
• Conductance are additive.
• Branch currents are additive.

• Current Division Technique:

Case (i) When two resistances are in parallel:
Two resistance R1 and R2 ohms are connected in parallel across a battery of
V (volts) Current through R2 is I2 and through R2 is I2 The total current is I.
I1 R1
A B

I I2 R2

+ V –
Figure 1.16

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To express I1 and I2 interms of I, R1 and R2 (or) to find branch currents I1, I2:
I2 R 2 = I1R1
I R
I 2= 1 1 (1)
R2

Also, the total current, I = I1 + I2 (2)

I R
Substituting (1) in (2), I1 + 1 1 = I
R2
I1 R2 + I1 R1
=I
R2
I1 (R1 + R2 ) = IR2
IR2
I1 =
(R1 + R2 )
IR1
Similarly, I2 =
(R1 + R2 )
To find the equivalent Resistance, (RT) :

Hence, the total value of two resistances connected parallel is equal to

their product divided by their sum i.e.,
Product of the two Resistance
Equivalent Resistance =
Sum of the two Resistane
Case (ii) When three resistances are connected in parallel. Let R1, R2 and R3
be resistors in parallel. Let I be the supply current (or) total current. I 1, I2, and
I3 are the currents through the resistors R1, R2 and R3.
I1 R1

I2 R2

I
I3 R3
V
+ –

Figure 1.17

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To find the equivalent Resistance (RT):
1 1 1
1 1
= = + +
R RT R1 R2 R3
1 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
=
RT R1 R2 R3
R RR
RT = R R + R1 R2 +3 R R
1 2 2 3 3 1

To find the branch currents I1, I2 and I3:

We know that, I1 + I2 + I3 = I (1)

Also, I3 R3 = I1 R1 = I2 R2

From the above expression, we can get expressions for I 2 and I3 interms of I1
and substitute them in the equation (1)

I1 R1 I1 R1
I1 + + =I
R2 R3
R R
I (1+ + 1)=I
1
R2 R3
I1 (R2 R3 + R3 R1 + R1 R2 )
=I
R2 R3

Similarly we can express I2 and I3 as,

• Advantages of parallel circuits:

 The electrical appliances rated for the same voltage but different
powers can be connected in parallel without affecting each other’s
performance.
 If a break occurs in any one of the branch circuits, it will have no
effect on the other branch circuits.

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• Applications of parallel circuits:

 All electrical appliances are connected in parallel. Each one of them
can be controlled individually will the help of separate switches.
 Electrical wiring in Cinema Halls, auditoriums, House wiring etc.

Comparison of series and parallel circuits:

Series Circuit Parallel Circuit
The current is same through all the The current is divided, inversely
elements. proportional to resistance.
The voltage is distributed. It is The voltage is the same across each
proportional to resistance. element in the parallel combination.
The total (or) equivalent resistance Reciprocal of the equivalent
is equal to sum of individual resistance is equal to sum of
resistance, ie. RT = R1 + R2 + R3 reciprocals of individual
1 1 1 1
Hence, the total resistance is greater resistances, ie, = + +
than the greatest resistance in the RT R1 R2 R3
circuit. Total resistance is lesser than the
smallest resistances in the circuit.
There is only one path for the flow There are more than one path for
of current. the flow of current.

• Problems based on parallel combinations:

Problem 1.17 What is the value of the unknown resistor R shown in Figure
1.18. If the voltage drop across the 500Ω resistor is 2.5V. All the resistor are
in ohms.

+ A I C I2
550 I1 50
12 V R 500

– B D

Figure 1.18
Given Data:
V500 = 2.5V
V 2.5
I = 500 = =0.005A
2
R 500

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V50 = Voltage across 50 Ω
V50 = I2 R = 0.005*50 = 0.25 V
VCD = V50 +V500 = 0.25 + 2.5 = 2.75 V
V550 = Drop across 550Ω = 12 − 2.75 = 9.25 V
V 9.25
I = 550 = = 0.0168A
R 550
I = I1 + I2 → I1 = I − I2 = 0.0168 − 0.005
I1 = 0.0118A
V
R = CD = 2.75 = 232.69 Ω
I1 0.0118
R = 232.69 Ω
Problem 1.18 Three resistors 2 Ω, 3 Ω and 4 Ω are in parallel. How will be a
total current of 8A is divided.

Figure 1.19

This given circuit can be reduced as, 3 Ω and 4 Ω are connected in parallel.
3* 4 12
Its equivalent resistances are, = = 1.714 Ω
3+ 4 7

Figure 1.20

1.714 Ω and 2 Ω are connected in parallel, its equivalent resistance is 0.923 Ω

1.714 * 2
= 0.923
2 + 1.714

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8A

0.923 Ω
V

Figure 1.21

V = IR = 8* 0.923
V = 7.385V

V = 7.385 = 3.69 A
Branch currents, I1 =
R1 2
V = 7.385 = 2.46 A
2I =
R2 3
V = 7.385
3I =
= 1.84A
R3 4

Problem 1.19 What resistance must be connected in parallel with 10Ω to give
an equivalent resistance of 6Ω

Figure 1.22

R is connected in parallel with 10 Ω Resistor to given an equivalent resistance

of 6 Ω.
10 * R
=6
10 + R
10R = (10 + R ) 6
10R = 60 + 6R
10R – 6R = 60
60
R= = 15 Ω
4
R = 15 Ω

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Problem 1.20 Two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in Parallel and a
Voltage of 200V DC is applied to the terminals. The total current drawn is
20A, R1=30 Ω. Find R2 and power dissipated in each resistor, for the figure
1.23.

20A
I1 I2
200 V 30 R2

Figure 1.23

Given Data:

V = 200V, I = 20A, R1 = 30 Ω

V = 200 = 6.667 A
Solution: I1 =
R1 30
I1 + I2 = I
I2 = I − I1
= 20 − 6.667 = 13.33 A
IR
2I =
 1
R+R
1 2
20 * 30
13.33 =
30 + R2
(30 + R2 )13.33 =600
13.33R2 = 600 − 400
13.33R2 = 200
200
R2 = = 15 Ω
13.33
R2 = 15 Ω

Power dissipated in 30 Ω, P 1 = VI1 = 200*6.667

P1 = 1333 W
Power dissipated in 15 Ω, P 2 = VI2
P2 = 200*13.33 = 2667
P2 = 2667 W

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Problem 1.21 Calculate the current supplied by the battery in the given
circuit as shown in the figure 1.24.

Figure 1.24

Solution: The above given circuit can be redrawn as,

I
I1 I2

48 V
R1 R2

Figure 1.25
R1 and R2 are in parallel across the voltage of 48 volts.
RR 8*16 16 Ω
Equivalent Resistance, RT = 1 2 = =
R1 + R2 8 + 16 3
RT = 5.33
V
I = = 48 = 9A
R 5.33

Problem 1.22 Calculate the total resistance and battery current in the given
circuit
R1 = 8 Ω
A C

R3 = 12 Ω
16 V

B R2 = 16 Ω D

Figure 1.26

The given above circuit can be re-drawn as,

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Figure 1.27

8 Ω, 16 Ω, 12 Ω are connected in parallel. Its equivalent resistance,

RRR
RT = R R + R1 R2 +3 R R
1 2 2 3 31

I
6V
3.692

Figure 1.28

8*6*12
RT = = 3.692 Ω
128 +192 + 96
RT = 3.692 Ω
V
I = = 16 = 4.33A
R 3.692

Problem 1.23 In the Circuit shown in the figure 1.29, calculate

(i) The current in all resistors.
(ii) The value of unknown resistance ‘x’
(iii) The equivalent resistance between A and B.

Figure 1.29

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Solution: As all the resistors are in parallel, the voltage across each one is
same. Give that current through 6 Ω , ie, I 6 Ω = 5A

Voltage across 6 Ω = 5×6 = 30volts.

V30 30
Hence, current through 30 Ω, I = = = 1A
30
R 30
V15 30
Similarly, current through 15 Ω, I = = = 2A
15
R 15
Total Current, I = I6 + Ix + I30 + I15
10 = 5 + Ix +1+ 2
IX = 2 A

Hence, the current flowing through the ‘X’ Resistor is, IX = 2 A

Value of the Resistor ‘X’ is given by,
30 30
X= = = 15 Ω
Ix 2
Let, the equivalent resistance across AB = RT
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
RT 6 x 30 15
1 5 + 2 +1+ 2 1
= =
RT 30 3
RT = 3 Ω
Series — Parallel Combination

As the name suggests, this circuit is a combination of series and parallel

circuits. A simple example of such a circuit is illustrated in Figure 1.30. R 3
and R2 are resistors connected in parallel with each other and both together
are connected in series with R1.
I1 R2
R1
R3
I
I2
I

Figure 1.30

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Equivalent Resistance: RT for parallel combination.

R R
R p = R 2+ R3
2 3

Total equivalent resistance of the circuit is given by,

RT = R1 + RP
TR = R1 +
R2 R3
R +R
2 3

R2 R3
Voltage across parallel combination = I * .
R2 + R3

• Problems based on Series – Parallel Combination:

Problem 1.24 In the circuit, find the current in all the resistors. Also
calculate the supply voltage.

Figure 1.31
Voltage across 15, V15 = I15  R = 815 = 120V

Resistors 2 Ω, 5 Ω, 10 Ω are connected in parallel, it equivalent resistance is

given by,
2 *5*10
RP = = 1.25 Ω
2  5 + 510 +10  2
Voltage across the parallel Combination is given by
Vp = V2 = V5 = V10 = I  RP = 81.25 = 10V

Total supply Voltage, V = V15+Vp

V = 120 +10 = 130V
V = 130V

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Hence, the Current through the parallel combination of the resistors are given
by,
V2 10
Current through 2 Ω resistor, I = = = 5A
2
R 2
V5 10
Current through 5 Ω Resistor, I = = =2A
5
R 5
V 10
Current through 10 Ω Resistor, I = 10 = = 1A
10
R 10

The Current of 8A across the parallel combination is divided as 5A, 2A, and
1A.

Problem 1.25 Calculate the equivalent resistance offered by the circuit to the
voltage source and also find its source current

Figure 1.32
Solution: The given above circuit can be re-drawn as

Figure 1.33
20 Ω and 10 Ω resistors are connected in parallel, its equivalent resistance is
20 *10
given by, = 6.667 Ω
20 + 10
The given circuit is reduced as,

Figure 1.34
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6.667 Ω and 5 Ω resistors are connected in parallel, its equivalent resistance is
6.667 *5
given by, = 2.857 Ω
6.667 + 5
The circuit is reduced as,

Figure 1.35
20 Ω and 2.857 Ω are connected in parallel. It equivalent resistance is,
20 * 2.857
= 2.497 Ω
20 + 2.857
The Circuit is re-drawn as,
ISource

2.497 Ω
50V

Figure 1.36

Hence the equivalent resistance of the Circuit is RT = 2.497 Ω = 2.5 Ω

Source Current of the Circuit is given by,

V 50
I = = =20A
source
R 2.5
Problem 1.26 Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B.

Figure 1.37

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Solution:

3 Ω and 3 Ω are connected in Series, it equivalent resistance is, (3 + 3) = 6 Ω.

The Circuit gets reduced as

Figure 1.38

6 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in parallel. The circuit gets reduced as,

6* 6
= 3hms.
6+6

Figure 1.39

3 Ω and 3 Ω are connected in series (3 + 3 = 6 Ω).

The reduced Circuit is,

Figure 1.40

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6*6
6 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in parallel. Its equivalent resistance, =3Ω
6+6
The circuit can be reduced as,

Figure 1.41
3 Ω and 3 Ω are connected in series. (3 + 3 = 6 Ω).

Figure 1.42
6* 6
6 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in parallel. It equivalent resistance, =3Ω
6+6

Figure 1.43
3 Ω and 3 Ω are connected in series, the reduced Circuit is 3 + 3 = 6 Ω

Figure 1.44

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6 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in parallel.

6*6
= 3 Ω . The equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B
6 +6
given by RAB = 3 Ω.

3Ω

A B

Figure 1.45

 RAB = 3 Ω

Problem 1.27 Determine the value of R if the power dissipated in 10 Ω

resistor is 90 W.

Figure 1.46

Solution:

100 Ω and 10 Ω are connected in parallel.

100 *10
Its equivalent resistance is, = 9.09 Ω
100 + 10

The circuit is reduced as,

Figure 1.47
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Current of 2A flows through the 9.09 Ω resistor. Voltage across 9.09 Ω is
given by,
V9.09 = I9.09  R
V9.09 = 2  9.09 = 18.18V

Similarly voltage across the unknown resistor VR,

VR = V −V9.09 = 50 −18.18 = 31.818V

Figure 1.48
Hence the Current through 40 Ω, 80 Ω resistors can be found out with the
voltage drop of 31.818V across it.
VR 31.818
I80 = = = 0.397 A
80 80
VR 31.818
I40 = = = 0.7954 A
40 40
Hence current through the unknown resistor R is I R,
I R = I −  I 80 + I 40 
IR = 2 − (0.397 + 0.7954) = 0.8075A

Hence, the value of the unknown Resistor R is given by

VR 31.818
R= = = 39.4 Ω
I R 0.8075
The value of the unknown resistor R is given by, R = 39.4 Ω.

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Problem 1.28 Calculate the following for the circuits given,

Figure 1.49

(i) Total resistance offered to the Source.

(ii) Total Current from the Source.
(iii) Power Supplied by the Source.
Solution: 12 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in Parallel.
12*6
Its equivalent resistance, = 4 Ω . The reduced circuit is given as,
12 + 6

Figure 1.50
4*12
4 Ω and 12 Ω are connected in parallel. =3Ω
12 + 4

Figure 1.51

7 Ω and 3 Ω are connected in series, 7 + 3 = 10Ω

Total resistance offered to the Source, R = 10 Ω

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100
Total Current from the Source, I = = 10 A
10
I = 10 A
Power supplied by the Source, P = I R = 10 10 = 1000W
2 2

P = 1000W.
Problem 1.29 A letter A is Constructed of an uniform wire of 1 Ω resistance
per cm. The signs of the letter are 60cm long and the cross piece is 30cm long,
Apex angle 60o. Find the resistance of the letter between two ends of the legs.

30 60° 30

30 30 30

Figure 1.52

Solution:
The given circuit can be redrawn as,

Figure 1.53

60 Ω and 30 Ω are connected in parallel

60 *30
= 2O ohms
60 + 30
20 Ω

30 Ω 30 Ω

Figure 1.54

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Equivalent Resistance = 80 Ω.

Problem 1.30 Find the current supplied by the battery.

I
Figure 1.55

Solution:
The given circuit can be re-drawn as,

8Ω 12 Ω
24V

Figure 1.56
8 Ω and 12 Ω connected in parallel.
8*12
= 4.8 Ω
8 + 12

Reduced circuit is,

I

24V
4.8 Ω

Figure 1.57

V 24
Current, I = = = 5A
R 4.8
I = 5A

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Problem 1.31 Find the current supplied by the battery for the figure shown
below.

I A 6Ω
C
4Ω
12V
4Ω 8Ω

D
B 2Ω

Figure 1.58

Solution:

The given above circuit can be redrawn as,

Figure 1.59

6* 4
4 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in parallel. = 2.4 Ω
6+4

Similarly, 2 Ω and 8 Ω are connected in parallel.

2*8
= 1.6 Ω
8+2
The reduced circuit can be re drawn as,
2.4 Ω
I

4Ω 1.6 Ω
12V

Figure 1.60

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2.4 Ω and 1.6 Ω are connected in series. 2.4 +1.6 = 4 Ω

Figure 1.61

4* 4
4 Ω and 4 Ω are connected in parallel =2Ω
4+4
The reduced circuit is,
I

2ohms
12V

Figure 1.62

V 12
I= = = 6A
R 2
Current I, supplied by the battery = 6A.

Problem 1.32 Two Resistors R1 = 2500 Ω and R2 = 4000 Ω are joined in

series and connected to a 100v supply. The voltage drop across R 1 and R2 are
measured successively by a voltmeter having a resistance of 50,000 Ω. Find
the sum of the Reading.
Solution:
Case (i) A voltmeter is connected across 2500 Ω.

Figure 1.63

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2500 Ω and 50,000 Ω are connected is parallel.
2500 * 50000
= 2381ohms
2500 + 50000

Figure 1.64

2381 Ω and 4000 Ω are connected in series.

2381+ 4000 = 6381 Ω

V 100
Current I = = = 0.01567A
R 6381

Voltage drop across, the Resister R1 is measured by connecting a voltmeter

having resistance of 50,000 across R1. Hence VA be voltage drop across R1

VA = IR = 0.01567 * 2381
VA = 37.31V
Case (ii) Voltmeter is connected across 4000 Ω.

Figure 1.65

4000 Ω and 50,000 Ω are connected in parallel.

4000 * 50000
= 3703.7ohms
4000 + 50000

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

Figure 1.66

100
Current, I =
V
= = 0.0161 A
R 6203.7
Voltage drop across the resistor R2 is measured by connecting a voltmeter
having resistance of 50000 across R2.Hence, VB be the voltage drop across R2.
VB = IR = 0.6161* 3703.7
VB = 59.7V
The total voltage drop = VA + VB
V = 37.31+ 59.7
V = 97 V
Problem 1.33 Find the value of ‘R’ and the total current when the total power
dissipated in the network is 16W as shown in the figure.

Figure 1.67
Solution:
Total Power (P) = 16w
P 16
Total Current, I = = = 2A
V 8
P 16
Total Resistance, (R ) = = = 4 Ω
AB
I2 4
Total Resistance between A and B is given by,

2*8 4 * R
RAB = +
2+8 4 +R

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 4 ( 4 + R ) = 1.6 ( 4 + R ) + 4R R = 6 Ω.

KIRCHOFF’S LAWS

Kirchhoff’s current law

The kirchoff’s current law states that the algebraic sum of currents in a node
is zero.
It can also be stated that “sum of incoming currents is equal to sum of
outgoing currents.”
Kirchhoff’s current law is applied at nodes of the circuit. A node is
defined as two or more electrical elements joined together. The electrical
elements may be resistors, inductors capacitors, voltage sources, current
sources etc.

Consider a electrical network as shown below.

I1

R1
Node

R2
I2 R4 I4

R3

I3

Figure 1.68

Four resistors are joined together to form a node. Each resistor carries
different currents and they are indicated in the diagram.

I1 → Flows towards the node and it is considered as positive current.

(+ I1)
I2 → Flows away from the node and it is considered as negative current.
(- I2)
I3 → Flows towards the node and it is considered as positive current.
(+I3)
I4 → Flows away from the node and hence it is considered as negative
current (-I4)

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Applying KCL at the node, by diffinition-1 algebraic sum of currents in a

node is zero.

+ I1 – I2 + I 3 – I4 = 0 (1)

taking the I2 & I4 to other side

I1 + I3 = I2 + I4 (2)
From equation (2) we get the definition – 2. Where I1 & I3 are positive
currents (Flowing towards the node) I2 & I4 are negative currents. (Flowing
away from the node).

Kirchoff’s voltage Law: (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that “sum of the voltages in a closed path
(loop) is zero”.
In electric circuit there will be closed path called as loops will be present.
The KVL is applied to the closed path only the loop will consists of
voltage sources, resistors, inductors etc.
In the loop there will be voltage rise and voltage drop. This voltage rise
and voltage drop depends on the direction traced in the loop. So it is
important to understand the sign convention and the direction in which KVL
is applied (Clock wise Anti clock wise).

• Sign Conventions

+ + R –
V I
–

(a) (b)

Figure 1.69

Consider a battery source V as shown in the figure 1.69(a). Here positive

of the battery is marked with + sign and negative of the battery is marked
with – sign.
When we move from + sign to – sign, it is called voltage drop.
When we move from – sign to + sign, it is called as voltage rise.

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+
KVL
_

When KVL is applied in Anti clockwise direction as shown above it is

called as voltage drop. A voltage drop is indicated in a loop with “—” sign (–
V)

KVL
_

For the same battery source if the KVL is applied in clock wise direction
we move from – sign to + sign. Hence it is called as Voltage Rise. A Voltage
rise indicated in the loop with + sign. (+V).
Similarly in the resistor the current entry point is marked as positive (+
sign) and current leaving point is marked as negative sign. (– sign).

R
I + _

For the resistor shown in the diagram above, if KVL is applied in clock
wise direction then it is called as voltage drop. Voltage drop in KVL equation
must be indicated with negative sign (–).  –IR.

R
I _
+

For the resistor shown in the diagram above, if KVL is applied in anti
clockwise direction then it is called as voltage rise. A voltage rise is indicated
in the KVL equation as positive. i.e. + IR.
In short the above explanation is summarized below in a Table.

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S.No. Element KVL in clockwise KVL in anticlockwise

1. + _ + _ + _

Drop Rise
V +V

R _ R _ R_
I + I + I +
2.
Drop Drop
IR +IR

• Procedure for KVL:

* Identify the loops and Name them.
* Mark the branch currents and name them.
* Apply the sign convention.
* Select a loop & apply KVL either in clockwise or Anticlockwise and
frame the equation.
* Solve all the equations of the loop.

• Problems based on Kirchhoff’s laws

Problem 1.34 For the given circuit find the branch currents and voltages by
applying KVL.

Figure 1.70

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Solution:

Figure 1.71

Consider loop ABEF & Apply KVL in CLK wise direction

100 – 5I – 6I1 = 0
But I = I1 + I2

100 – 5 ( I1 + I2 ) – 6I1 = 0
100 – 5I1 – 5I2 – 6I1 = 0
−11I1 – 5I2 + 100 = 0
11I1 + 5I2 = 100 (1)

Consider loop BCDEB & Apply KVL in CLK wise direction

−10I2 – 8I2 + 6I1 = 0
−18I2 + 6I1 = 0
6I1 = 18I2
I1 = 3I2 (2)

Sub I1 in equ (1)

11 (3 I2 ) + 5 I2 = 100
33 I2 + 5 I2 = 100
38 I2 = 100
100
I 2= = 2.63 Amps.
38
I2 = 2.63 Amps

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Sub I2 in equ (2)

I1 = 3(2.63) = 7.89Amps
I1 = 7.89Amps
I = I1 + I2 = 10.52
I = 10.52Amps.

Voltage Across 5 = 5  I = 5  10.52

= 52.6 volts
Voltage Across 6 = 6  I1 = 6  7.89
= 47.34 volts
Voltage Across 10 = 10  I2 = 10  2.63
= 26.3 volts
Voltage Across 8 = 8  I2 = 8  2.63
= 21.04 volts

(Or)

The above problem can be solved by applying KVL in Anti clock wise
directions.

Consider loop ABEF & Apply KVL in anti clock wise direction
6I1 + 5I −100 = 0

But I = I1 + I2

6I1 + 5 ( I1 + I 2 ) −100 = 0
6I1 + 5I1 + 5I2 = 100

11I1 + 5I2 = 100 (3)

Consider loop BCDEB & Apply KVL in anti clockwise direction

8I2 + 10I2 – 6I1 = 0
18I2 = 6I1
I1 = 3I2 (4)
equations (3) & (1) are identical

equations (2) & (4) are identical

Hence we get the same answer irrespective of directions of applying KVL.

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Problem 1.35 Calculate the branch current in 15 Ω resistor by Applying
kirchhoff’s law

Figure 1.72

Figure 72 battery voltage value 25 volt missing

Solution:

Name the loop and Mark the current directions

Figure 1.73

Consider the loop ABEFA & apply KVL in CLK wise

10 – 10I1 – 25 ( I1 + I 2 ) – 5I1 = 0
10 – 10 I1 – 25 I1 – 25 I2 – 5 I1 = 0
– 40 I1 – 25 I 2 + 10 = 0
40I1 + 25I2 = 10 (1)
Consider the loop BCDEB and Apply KVL in CLK wise direction

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Consider the loop BCDEB and Apply KVL in CLK wise direction

15 I 2 – 25 + 20 I 2 + 25 ( I1 + I 2 ) = 0
15 I 2 – 25 + 20 I 2 + 25 ( I1 + I 2 ) = 0
15 I 2 – 25 + 20 I 2 + 25 I1 + 25 I 2 = 0

25I1 + 60 I 2 – 25 = 0

25I1 + 60 I 2 = 25 ……………..(2)

Solve (1) & (2) & find I2 alone

(1)  25  1000 I1 +625I2 = 25
(2)  40  1000 I1 + 2400I2

(A) − (B)  –1775 I2 = −750

I2 = 0.42 Amps.

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Current in 15 Ω resistor is 0.42Amps.

Problem 1.36 For the given network find the branch current in 8 Ω and
voltage across the 3 Ω by applying KVL

Figure 1.74

Solution:

Name the loop and mark the current directions and apply sign convention.

Figure 1.75

Consider loop ABDA and apply KVL -8I1 +8

−12I1 – 3I2 + 40 = 0
12I1 + 3I2 = 40
Consider loop BCDB and apply KVL
-8(I1 - I2) – 4(I1 - I2 + I3 )+ 3 I2=0
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I2 – 4I1 +4 I2 - 4 I3 + 3 I2=0 (1)

–12I1+15I2 – 4I3 = 0 (2).
Consider loop ABCA and apply KVL
–12I1 – 8(I1 – I2) + 5I3= 0
–12I1 – 8I1 + 8I2 + 5I3 = 0
–20I1+ 8I2 + 5I3 = 0 (3)

Solve equ (2) & (3) and cancel out I3

(2) x 5  –60 I1+ 75 I2 – 20 I3 = 0
(3) x 4  –80 I1+32 I2 + 20 I3 = 0
Add the above two equations  – 140 I1 + 107I2 = 0 (4)

Solve equ (4) & (1) and find I 1 & I2

12I1 + 3I2 = 40 (1)

–140I1 + 107I2 = 0 (4)

(1) x 107  1284I1+ 321I2 = 4280

(4) x 3  – 420I1+ 321I2 = 0
Subtract the above two 1704 I1 = 4280
I1 = 2.51 Amps

Sub I1 in (4)

-140 × 2.51 + 107I2 = 0

-351.4 + 107I2 = 0
107I2 = 351.4
I2 = 3.28 Amps
Current in 8 Ω resistor = I1- I2
= 2.51- 3.28
= -0.77 Amps.

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Negative sign indicates that current flows in the opposite direction of our
assumption.

Voltage in 3 Ω resistor = 3I2

= 3 × 3.28 = 9.84 volts

Note: Since there are 3 loops three unknown currents I 1, I2 and I3 should be
named in the loop.

Problem 1.37 For the given network shown below find the branch currents
by applying KVL and also find the voltage across 5 Ω resistor.

50 V

Figure 1.76
Solution:
Name the loop and assume the branch currents.

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Figure 1.77

Consider the loop ABDA and apply KVL.

–4I1 – 5 I3 + I2 = 0
–4 I1+ I2 – 5 I3 = 0 (1)

Consider the loop BCDB and apply KVL.

–3(I1 – I3) + 3(I3 + I2) + 5I3 = 0
–3I1+ 3I3 + 3I3 + 3I2 + 5I3 = 0
–3I1+ 3I2 + 11I3 = 0 (2)

Consider the loop ADCA and apply KVL.

–6(I1 + I2) – I2 – 3(I3 + I2) + 50 = 0
–6I1 – 6I2 – I2 – 3I3 – 3I2 = –50
–6I1 – 10I2 – 3I3 = –50
6I1+ 10I2 + 3I3 = 50 (3)

From eqn is (1) & (2) Cancel I 3

–4I1+ I2 – 5I3 = 0 (4)
–3I1+ 3I2 + 11I3 = 0 (5)

(4) x 3  –12I1 + 3I2 –15I3 = 0

(5) x 4  –12I1 + 12I2 –44I3 = 0

By subtracting the above two equations –9I2 – 59I3 = 0

9I2 = – 59I3
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I2 = – 6.56I3 (6)
–3I1+ 3I2 + 11I3 = 0 (7)
6I1+ 10I2 + 3I3 = 50 (8)

(7) x 2  –6I1+ 6I2 + 22I3 = 0

(8)  6I1+ 10I2 + 3I3 = 50

By adding the above two equations 16I2 + 28I3 = 50 (9)

Sub eqn (6) in (9)
16 (–6.56 I3) + 25 I3 = 50
–104.96 + 25 I3 = 50
–79.96 I3 = 50
I3 = –0.625 Amps (10)
Sub eqn (10) in (6)
I2 = –6.56 x (–0.625)
I2 = 4.1 Amps (7)
Sub (10) & (11) in eqn (8)
6I1+ 10I2 + 3I3 = 50
6I1+ 10 (4.1) + 3 (–0.625) = 50
6I1+ 41 – 1.875 = 50
6I1= 10.875
I1 = 1.81 Amps

Current in 6 Ω resistor = (I1 + I2) = (1.81 + 4.1) = 5.91Amps

Current in 4 Ω resistor = I1 = 1.81 Amps
Current in 5 Ω resistor = I3 = –0.625 Amps
Current in 3 Ω resistor = (I1 – I3) = 1.81 + 0.625 = 2.44 Amps
Current in 3 Ω resistor = (I3+I2) = 3.475 Amps
Current in 1 Ω resistor = I2= 4.1 Amps.
Voltage Across 5 Ω resistor= 5 × 0.625 = 3.13 volts.

Problem 1.38 For the Circuit shown below determine voltages (i) Vdf and
(ii)Vag

Figure 1.78
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Solution:
Mark the current directions and mark the polarity
+

Figure 1.79
Apply KVL to loop abcda
10 –2I1 -3I1 –5I1 =0
–10I1 = –10
I1= 1 Amps

Apply KVL to loop efghe

5I2 – 10 + 3I2 + 2I2 =0
10I2 = 10
I2 = 1 Amps
To find Vdf:
Trace the path Vdf

Figure 1.80

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Vdf = –5(I1 –3I1 +10 + 2I2 +5I2)

Vdf = –5 –3 +10 +2 +5
Vdf = 9 Volts.
Vdf= –9 Volts [∵ because - sign on d side + on f side]

To find Vag:

Figure 1.81

Apply KVL to the above Trace

–2I1 -10 –3I2 = Vag
Vag = –2 – 10 – 3
Vag = –15

Vag = 15 Volts. (With a side + w.r.t g)

Problem 1.39 Find the currents through R2, R3, R4, R5 and R6 of the network.

Figure 1.82

R2 =8 Ω
R3 =4 Ω
R4 =6 Ω
R5 =20 Ω
R6 =10 Ω

Solution:
Name the circuit and mark the current directions and polarity as shown below

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Figure 1.83

Apply KVL to the loop ACBA.

–4(I1 –I2) + 6I3 + 8I2 = 0.
–4I1 + 4I2 + 6I3 + 8I2 =0
–4I1 + 12I2 + 6I3 =0 (1)
Apply KVL to the loop BCDB
–6I3 –10 (I1 –I2 + I3) +20 (I2 – I3) =0
–6I3 – 10I1 + 10I2 – 10I3 + 20I2 – 20I3 = 0
–10I1 + 30I2 – 36I3 = 0 (2)
Apply KVL to loop EABDFE
–8 I2 – 20 (I2 – I3) +12 (2 – I1) = 0
–8 I2 – 20 I2 + 20 I3 + 24 – 12 I1 = 0
–28 I2 + 20 I3 + 24 – 12 I1 = 0
–12 I1 – 28 I2 + 20 I3 = -24
12 I1 + 28 I2 – 20 I3 = 24 (3)

Solving equ. (1) (2) & (3). We get

I1 = 1.125 Amps
I2 = 0.375 Amps
I3 = 0 Amps

 Current in R2 = 0.375 Amps

R3 = 0.75 Amps
R4 = 0 Amps
R5 = 0.375 Amps
R6 = 0.75 Amps

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NODAL ANALYSIS

▪ In nodal analysis, node equations relating node voltages are

obtained for a multi node network.
▪ These node voltages are derived from kirchoff’s current law (KCL)
• In this method the number of equations required to be solved is N-1,
where N is the number of nodes.
• A node is a junction in a network where three or more branches
meet. One of the nodes in a network is regarded as reference
(datum) node and the potential of the other nodes are defined
with reference to the datum node.

Case I.

Consider figure 1 Let the voltages at nodes a and b be V a and Vb. Applying
Kirchoff’s current law (KCL) at node ‘a’ we get

R1 I1 a I3 R 3 b I5 R 5
I2 I4
V1 R2 R4 V2
V0

Figure 1.84

I1 + I2 + I3 = 0 (1)

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 S
a
t
h
y
a
b
a
m
a

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

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Problem 1.42 Use the Nodal Method to find Vba and current through 30 Ω
−
resistor in the circuit shown
0.25
5

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 SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CIRCUIT THEORY – SEEA1201

UNIT-II- AC CIRCUITS
Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology

UNIT II

AC CIRCUITS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
We have seen so far about the analysis of DC circuit. A DC quantity is one
which has a constant magnitude irrespective of time. But an alternating
quantity is one which has a varying magnitude and angle with respect to time.
Since it is time varying in nature, at any time it can be represented in three
ways 1) By its effective value 2) By its average value and 3) By its peak
value.

Some important terms

1. Wave form
A wave form is a graph in which the instantaneous value of any
quantity is plotted against time.

Fig 2.1(a-c)

2. Alternating Waveform
This is wave which reverses its direction at regularly recurring
interval.
3. Cycle

Figure 2.2
It is a set of positive and negative portion of waveforms.

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4. Time Period
The time required for an alternating quantity, to complete one cycle
is called the time period and is denoted by T.
5. Frequency
The number of cycles per second is called frequency and is denoted
by f. It is measured in cycles/second (cps) (or) Hertz
f  1/ T
6. Amplitude
The maximum value of an alternating quantity in a cycle is called
amplitude. It is also known as peak value.
7. R.M.S value [Root Mean Square]
The steady current when flowing through a given resistor for a given
time produces the same amount of heat as produced by an alternating
current when flowing through the same resistor for the same time is
called R.M.S value of the alternating current.
Area Under the square curve for
RMS Value 
one complete cycle / Period

8. Average Value of AC
The average value of an alternating current is defined as the DC
current which transfers across any circuit the same change as is
transferred by that alternating current during the same time.

Average Value = Area Under one complete cycle/Period.

9. Form Factor (Kf)

It is the ratio of RMS value to average value

Form Factor = RMS value/Average Value

10. Peak Factor (Ka)

It is the ratio of Peak (or) maximum value to RMS value.

Peak Factor Ka=Peak Value/RMS value

2.2 Analytical method to obtain the RMS, Average value, Form Factor
and Peak factor for sinusoidal current (or) voltage

Figure 2.3

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i  I m sin t ; t=
2
1
  i d
2 2
Mean square of AC I RMS
2 0

1
  i d
2
[since it is symmetrical]
 0

I m2
  sin d
2

 0

I m2  1  cos 2

  0 2
d

I m2  sin 2 
=
2   2 
 0
I m2
 
2
Im
I rms 
2
Average Value:
 id
I av  
0 
1 


 I m sin  d 
0

Im 

  0
sin  d 

I 
  m [cos  ]0

Im
 cos   cos 0

Im
  1  1

2I m


Im
RMS 2  1.11
Form Factor  
Avg 2 I m

MAX I I
Peak Factor   m  m  1.414
RMS RMS I m
2

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2.2.1 Expression for RMS, Average, Form Factor, Peak factor for Half
wave rectifier

Figure 2.4

1) RMS value
i= ImSin ; 0 < θ < π
i=0 ; π < θ ≤ 2π
1 2
  i 2 d
2
Mean square of AC I RMS
2 0

1  2 2

2 0
i d   i 2 d


1   2
i d  0
2  0


2
I 
 m  sin 2 d
2 0
I 2  1  cos 2
 m  d
2 0 2

I 2  sin 2 
 m 
4  2 
 0
2
I
  m

4
I
I RMS  m
2
Average Value:
id

I av  
02
1  
id  0
2  0



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1 
2 0
 I m sin  d

I 
 m  I m sin  d
2 0
I
 m  cos  0


2
I
 m cos   cos 0
2
I
  m  1  1
2
2I I
 m  m
2 
RMS I m I m
Form Factor   /  1.57
Avg 2 
MAX I I
Peak Factor   m / m 2
RMS RMS I m
2
Examples:

2.1) The equation of an alternating current is given by

i = 40sin 314 t

Determine

(i) Max value of current

(ii) Average value of current
(iii) RMS value of current
(iv) Frequency and angular frequency
(v) Form Factor
(vi) Peak Factor

Solution:

i = 40sin 314 t

We know that i = Im sin ωt

So Im = 40
ω = 314 rad / sec
(i) Maximum value of current = 40A
(ii) Average value of current

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2I m 2  40
I Avg    25.464 A
 
(iii) RMS value of current
I 40
I rms  m   28.28 Amp
2 2
 314
(iv) Frequency f    50 Hz
2 2
RMS 28.28
(v ) Form Factor   1.11
Avg 25.46
max 40
(vi) Peak Factor    1.414
RMS 28.28

2.2) what is the equation of a 50Hz voltage sin wave having an rms value of
50 volt

Solution:
f = 50Hz
Vrms = 50V
v = Vm sinωt
ω = 2πf = 2π×50=314 rad/sec
Vm  Vrms 2  50  2  70.7 volt
 v  70.7sin 314t

2.3 PHASOR REPRESENTATION OF SINUSOIDAL

VARYING ALTERNATING QUANTITIES
The Phasor representation is more convenient in handling sinusoidal
quantities rather than by using equations and waveforms. This vector or
Phasor representation of alternating quantity simplifies the complexity of the
problems in the AC circuit.

Figure 2.5

OP =Em

Em – the maximum value of alternating voltage which varies sinusoidally

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Any alternating sinusoidal quantity (Voltage or Current) can be represented

by a rotating Phasor, if it satisfies the following conditions.

1. The magnitude of rotating phasor should be equal to the maximum

value of the quantity.
2. The rotating phasor should start initially at zero and then move in
anticlockwise direction. (Positive direction)
3. The speed of the rotating phasor should be in such a way that during
its one revolution the alternating quantity completes one cycle.

Phase
The phase is nothing but a fraction of time period that has elapsed from
reference or zero position.

In Phase
Two alternating quantities are said to be in phase, if they reach their zero
value and maximum value at the same time.

Consider two alternating quantities represented by the equation

i1=Im1sin
i2=Im2sin

can be represented graphically as shown in Fig 2.6(a).

Figure 2.6(a) Graphical representation of sinusoidal current

From Fig 2.6(a), it is clear that both i1 and i2 reaches their zero and their
maximum value at the same time even though both have different maximum
values. It is referred as both currents are in phase meaning that no phase
difference is between the two quantities. It can also be represented as vector
as shown in Fig 2.6(b).

Figure 2.6(b) Vector diagram

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Out of Phase
Two alternating quantities are said to be out of phase if they do not reach their
zero and maximum value at the same time. The Phase differences between
these two quantities are represented in terms of ‘lag’ and ‘lead’ and it is
measured in radians or in electrical degrees.

Lag

Lagging alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum value and
zero value later than that of the other alternating quantity.

Consider two alternating quantities represented by the equation:

i1 = Im1sin (t - )
i2 = Im2sin (t)

These equations can be represented graphically and in vector form as shown

in Fig 2.7(a) and Fig 2.7(b) respectively.

Figure 2.7a

Figure 2.7b

It is clear from the Fig 2.7(a), the current i1 reaches its maximum value and its
zero value with a phase difference of ‘’ electrical degrees or radians after
current i2. (ie) i1 lags i2 and it is represented by a minus sign in the equation.

Lead

Leading alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum value and
zero value earlier than that of the other alternating quantity.

Consider two alternating quantities represented by the equation:

i1 = Im1sin (t + )
i2 = Im2sin (t)

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These equations can be represented graphically and in vector form as shown

in Fig 2.8(a) and Fig 2.8(b) respectively.

Figure 2.8(a)

Figure 2.8(b)

The Fig 2.8(a) clearly illustrates that current i1 has started already and reaches
its maximum value before the current i2. (ie) i1 leads i2 and it is represented by
a positive sign in the equation.

Note:
1. Two vectors are said to be in quadrature, if the Phase difference
between them is 90.
2. Two vectors are said to be in anti phase, if the phase difference
between them is 180.

2.4 REVIEW OF ‘J’ OPERATOR

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. A vector’ A’ is
represented in two axis plane as shown in Fig 3.10

Figure 2.9

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In Fig 2.9, OM represents vector A

 represents the phase angle of vector A

A = a + jb
a – Horizontal component or active component or in phase component
b – Vertical component or reactive component or quadrature component

The magnitude of vector ' A '  a 2  b2

Phase angle of Vector ‘A’ =  = tan-1 ( b/a )
Features of j – Operator
1. j = 1
It indicates anticlockwise rotation of Vector through 90.
2. j2 = j . j = -1
It indicates anticlockwise rotation of vector through 180.
3. j3 = j . j . j = -j
It indicates anticlockwise rotation of vector through 270.
4. j4 = j . j . j . j = 1
It indicates anticlockwise rotation of vector through 360.
5. –j indicates clockwise rotation of vector through 90.
1 1. j j j
6.    j
j j. j j 2 1

A vector can be written both in polar form and in rectangular form.

A = 2 + j3

This representation is known as rectangular form.

Magnitude of A = |A| = 22  32 =3.606
Phase angle of A =  = tan-1 (3/2) = 56.31
A=|A| 
A=3.60656.31

This representation is known as polar form.

Note:
1. Addition and Subtraction can be easily done in rectangular form.
2. Multiplication and division can be easily done in polar form.

Examples:

2.3) A= 2 + j3; B = 4 + j5.

Add Vector A and Vector B and determine the magnitude and Phase angle of
resultant vector.

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Solution:

A + B = 2 + j3 + 4 + j5 = 6 + j8
 Magnitude = | A + B | = 62  82 = 10.0
Phase angle =  = tan-1 (B /A) = tan-1 (8/6) = 53.13

2.4) A= 2 + j5; B = 4 – j2.

Subtract Vector A and Vector B and determine the magnitude and Phase
angle of resultant vector.

Solution:

A – B = 2 + j5 – (4 – j2) = 2 + j5 – 4 + j2 = -2 + j7
 Magnitude = | A – B | = 22  72 = 7.280
Phase angle =  = tan-1 (B /A) = tan-1 (7/-2) = -74.055

2.5) A= 2 + j3; B = 4 – j5.

Perform A x B and determine the magnitude and Phase angle of resultant
vector.

Solution:
A= 2 + j3
|A| = 22+32 =3.606
 = tan-1 (3/2) = 56.310
A= 3.606  56.310
B = 4 – j5
|B| = 42  52 =6.403
 = tan-1 (-5/4) = -51.340
B= 6.403 -51.340
A X B = 3.606  56.310 X 6.403 -51.340
= 3.606 X 6.403 (56.310 + (-51.340))
= 23.089 4.970

2.6) A= 4 – j2; B = 2 + j3.

A
Perform and determine the magnitude and Phase angle of resultant vector.
B

Solution:
A= 4 – j2
|A| = 42  22 = 4.472
 = tan-1 (-2/4) = -26.565
A= 4.472  -26.565
B = 2 + j3
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|B| = 22  32 = 3.606
 = tan-1 (3/2) = 56.310
B= 3.606 56.310
A 4.472-26 .565 4.472
   -26 .565 - 56 .310 = 1.240 -82.875
B 3.60656 .310 3.606

2.5 ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUIT

The response of an electric circuit for a sinusoidal excitation can be studied
by passing an alternating current through the basic circuit elements like
resistor (R), inductor (L) and capacitor (C).

2.5.1 Pure Resistive Circuit:

In the purely resistive circuit, a resistor (R) is connected across an alternating

voltage source as shown in Fig.2.10

Figure 2.10

Let the instantaneous voltage applied across the resistance (R) be

V = Vm sinωt
From Ohms law,

v=iR
v V sin t
I= = m
R R
Vm
 Im 
R
= Im sinωt
where,
Vm → Maximum value of voltage (V)
Im → Maximum value of current (A)
ω → Angular frequency (rad/sec)
t → Time period (sec)

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Phasor Representation:

Figure 2.11

Comparing equations, we find that applied voltage and the resulting current
are inphase with each other. Therefore in a purely resistive circuit there is no
phase difference between voltage and current i.e., phase angle is zero (Ф=0).
If voltage is taken as reference, the phasor diagram for purely resistive
circuit is shown in Fig.2.11

Waveform Representation:

Figure 2.12

The waveform for applied voltage and the resulting current and power were
shown in Fig.2.12. Since the current and voltage are inphase the waveforms
reach their maximum and minimum values at the same instant.

Impedance:
In an AC circuit, impedance is the ratio of the maximum value of voltage to
the maximum value of current.
V
Z  m
Im
Vm
 R
Vm
R
Z  R

Power:

(i) Instantaneous power:

It is defined as the product of instantaneous voltage and instantaneous
current.
p= v i
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= Vm sinωt Im sinωt = Vm Im sin2ωt

[t   ]
p = Vm Im sin2θ
(ii) Average power:
Since the waveform in Fig. is symmetrical, the average power is calculated
for one cycle.

1
P =  Vm I m sin 2  d
0
Vm I m  1  cos 2
 0
= d
2
1  cos 2
 sin 2  
2

V I  sin 2 
= m m  
2  2  0
Vm I m  sin 2 sin 0 
=  0
2  2 2 
V I V I
= m m   = m m
2 2
Vm I m
= = VRMS I RMS = V.I
2 2
P=VI

Power Factor:
It is defined as the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current.

cos   cos 0  1(unity)

Problems:

2.7) A voltage of 240 sin 377t is applied to a 6Ω resistor. Find the

instantaneous current, phase angle, impedance, instantaneous power, average
power and power factor.

Solution:

Given: v = 240 sin 377t

Vm = 240 V
ω = 377 rad/sec
R = 6Ω

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Instantaneous current:
V sin t
= m
R
240
 sin 377t
6
 40sin 377tA
I. Phase angle:
 0
II. Impedance:
Z = R = 6Ω
III. Instantaneous power:
IV. p  Vm Im sin 2 t
 240.40.sin 2 377t
 9600sin 2 377t
V. Average power:
V I
P  m m =4800watts
2
VI. Power factor:
cosФ = cos0 = 1

2.8) A voltage e = 200sinωt when applied to a resistor is found to give a

power 100 watts. Find the value of resistance and the equation of current.

Solution:
Given: e = 200sinωt
Vm = 200
P = 100w
V I
Average power, P = m m
2
200 I m
100=
2
Im= 1 A
Also, Vm = Im.R
R = 200Ω

Instantaneous current, I = Im sinωt = 1.sinωt A

2.9) A voltage e = 250sinωt when applied to a resistor is found to give a

power of 100W. Find the value of R and write the equation for current. State
whether the value of R varies when the frequency is changed.

Solution:
Given: e = 250sinωt

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Vm = 250
P = 100W
V I
I. P= m m
2
250 I m
100 =
2
Im = 0.8 A
V
II. Im = m
R
R = 312.5Ω
III. I = 0.8sinωt

The resistance is independent of frequency, so the variation of frequency will

not affect the resistance of the resistor.

2.5.2 Pure Inductive Circuit:

In this circuit, an alternating voltage is applied across a pure inductor (L) is

shown in Fig. 2.13.

Figure 2.13

Let the instantaneous voltage applied across the inductance (L) be

v = Vm sinωt
We know that the self induced emf always opposes the applied voltage.
di
V=L
dt
1 1
i =  vdt =  Vm sin tdt
L L
V V  
= m   cos t  = m sin  t  
L L  2
 Vm 
 I m   L 
 
 
i = Im sin   t- 
 2
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Phasor representation:

Figure 2.14

Comparing equations, the applied voltage and the resulting current are 90 0
out-of phase. Therefore in a purely inductive circuit there is a phase
difference of 900 ie., phase angle is 900 (Ф = 900). Clearly, the current lags
behind the applied voltage.

Waveform representation:

Figure 2.15

The waveform for applied voltage and the resulting current and the power
were shown in Fig.2.15. The current waveform is lagging behind the voltage
waveform by 900.

Impedance (Z):
V
Z= m
Im
Vm
= = ωL
Vm
L
Z = XL [Impedance is equal to inductive reactance]

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Power:

(i)Instantaneous power:
p=vi
 
= Vm sinωt Im sin  t  
 2
=VmIm sinωt (-cos ωt)
= -VmIm sinωt cos ωt = -VmIm sinθ cos θ

(ii) Average power:

Since the waveform in Fig. is symmetrical, the average power is calculated
for one cycle.

1
P=   Vm I m sin  cos  d
 0

Vm I m  sin 2
 0 2
=  d

 sin 2  2sin  cos 


Vm I m  cos 2  Vm I m
=
2   2  = 4 cos 2  cos 0
 0
Vm I m
= 1  1 =0
4

Thus, a pure inductor does not consume any real power. It is also clear from
Fig. that the average demand of power from the supply for a complete cycle is
zero. It is seen that power wave is a sine wave of frequency double that of the
voltage and current waves. The maximum value of instantaneous power
V I 
is  m m  .
 2 

Power Factor:
In a pure inductor the phase angle between the current and the voltage is 900
(lags).
Ф = 900; cos Ф = cos 900 = 0
Thus the power factor of a pure inductive circuit is zero lagging.

Problems:

2.10) A coil of wire which may be considered as a pure inductance of 0.225H

connected to a 120V, 50Hz source. Calculate (i) Inductive reactance (ii)
Current (iii) Maximum power delivered to the inductor (iv) Average power
and (v) write the equations of the voltage and current.
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Solution:
Given: L = 0.225 H
VRMS = V = 120 V
f = 50Hz
I. Inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL =2π x 50 x 0.225 = 70.68Ω
II. Instantaneous current, i =-Im cosωt
V V
 I m  m andVRMS  m , calculate Im and Vm
L 2
Vm  VRMS 2 =169.71V
Vm 169.71
Im    2.4 A
L 70.68
V I
Maximum power, Pm  m m = 203.74 W
2
III. Average power, P=0
IV. Instantaneous voltage, v = Vm sinωt = 169.71 sin 344t volts
Instantaneous current, i = -2.4 cosωt A

2.11) A pure inductance, L = 0.01H takes a current, 10 cos 1500t. Calculate

(i) inductive reactance, (ii) the equation of voltage across it and (iii) at what
frequency will the inductive reactance be equal to 40Ω.

Solution:
Given: L = 0.01 H
I = 10cos1500t
Im = 10A
ω = 1500 rad/sec
I. Inductive reactance, XL = ωL = 1500 x 0.01 = 15Ω
di
II. The voltage across the inductor, e= L
dt
d 10 cos1500t 
= 0.01 = 0.01 x 10[-sin1500t.1500]
dt
= -150 sin 1500t V
III. XL = 40Ω; 2πfL = 40
40
f= = 637Hz
2  0.01

 
2.12) In the circuit, source voltage is v=200 sin  314t   and the current is
 6
  
i = 20 sin  314t   Find (i) frequency (ii) Maximum values of voltage and
 3
current (iii) RMS value of voltage and current (iv) Average values of both (v)
Draw the phasor diagram (vi) circuit element and its values
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Solution:
Given: Vm = 200V
Im = 20A
ω = 314 rad/sec
I. ω = 2πf
f = 50Hz
II. Vm = 200V and Im= 20A
V
III. VRMS  m = 141.42V
2
Im
I RMS  = 14.142A
2
2Im
IV. For a sinusoidal wave, Average value of current, Iav= =12.732A

2Vm
Average value of voltage, Vav= = 127.32A

V. Phasor diagram

Figure 2.16

VI. From the phasor diagram, it is clear that I lags V by some angle
(900). So the circuit is purely inductive.
V
Im  m
L
200
L= = 31.85mH
314  20

2.5.3 Pure Capacitive Circuit:

In this circuit, an alternating voltage is applied across a pure capacitor(C) is

shown in Fig.2.17

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Figure 2.17
Let the instantaneous voltage applied across the inductance (L) be
v = Vm sinωt
Let at any instant i be the current and Q be the charge on the plates.

So, charge on capacitor, Q = C.v

= C. Vm sinωt
dQ
Current,i =
dt
d
i=  CVm sin t  = ωCVmcosωt
dt
 
= CVm sin  t  
 2
 I m  CVm 
 
i = Im sin   t  
 2

From the above equations , we find that there is a phase difference of 900
between the voltage and current in a pure capacitor.

Phasor representation:

Figure 2.18

In the phasor representation, the current leads the voltage by an angle of 90 0.

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Waveform representation:

Figure 2.19
The current waveform is ahead of the voltage waveform by an angle of 90 0.

Impedance (Z):
V
Z= m
Im
Vm 1
= =
CVm  C
Z = XC [Impedance is equal to capacitive reactance]

Power:
(i)Instantaneous power:
p=vi
 
= Vm sinωt Im sin  t  
 2
=VmIm sinωt (cos ωt)
= VmIm sinθ cos θ

(ii) Average power:

Since the waveform in Fig. is symmetrical, the average power is calculated
for one cycle.

1
P   Vm I m sin  cos  d
0
Vm I m  sin 2
 0 2
= d

 sin 2  2sin  cos 


V I  cos 2  Vm I m
= m m
2   2  = 4   cos 2  cos 0
 0
Vm I m
=  1  1 =0
4

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Thus, a pure capacitor does not consume any real power. It is also clear from
Fig. that the average demand of power from the supply for a complete cycle is
zero. Again, it is seen that power wave is a sine wave of frequency double
that of the voltage and current. The maximum value of instantaneous power
V I 
is  m m  .
 2 
Power Factor:
In a pure capacitor, the phase angle between the current and the voltage is 90 0
(leads).
Ф = 900; cos Ф = cos 900 = 0
Thus the power factor of a pure inductive circuit is zero leading.

Problems:

2.13) A 135μF capacitor has a 150V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (i) capacitive
reactance (ii) equation of the current (iii) Instantaneous power (iv) Average
power (v) RMS current (vi) Maximum power delivered to the capacitor.

Solution:
Given: VRMS= V= 150V
C = 135μF
f = 50Hz
1
I. XC= =23.58Ω
C
  V
II. i= Im sin   t    I m  CVm and VRMS  m
 2 2
Vm=150X 2 =212.13V
Im=314X135X10-6X212.13=8.99A
 
i=8.99 sin  314t   A
 2
III. p= VmIm sinωt (cos ωt)=212.13X8.99 sin314t.cos314t
sin 628t
= 66642.6 sin 314t.cos314t = 66642.6
2
 sin 2  2sin  cos 
= 33321.3 sin628t W
IV. Average power, P = 0
I
V. I RMS  m =6.36A
2
Vm I m
VI. Pm  = 953.52 W
2
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2.14) A voltage of 100V is applied to a capacitor of 12μF. The current is 0.5

A. What must be the frequency of supply

Solution:
Given: VRMS= V= 100V
C = 12μF
I = 0.5A
I. Find Vm and Im
V
VRMS  m
2
Vm=100X 2 =141.42V
I
I RMS  m
2
Im= 0.5X 2 = 0.707A
II. I m  CVm = 2 fCVm
f = 66.3Hz

2.5.4 RL Series Circuit

Let us consider a circuit is which a pure resistance R and a purly inductive

coil of inductance L are connected in series as shown in diagram.

Figure 2.20

Let V = Vm Sin ωt be the applied voltage.

i = Circuit current at any constant.
I = Effective Value of Circuit Current.
VR= Potential difference across inductor.
VL= Potential difference across inductor.
F= Frequency of applied voltage.

The same current I flows through R and L hence I is taken as reference

vector.

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Voltage across resistor VR= IR in phase with I

Voltage with inductor VL= IXL leading I by 90°

The phasor diagram of RL series circuit is shown below.

Figure 2.21

At any constant, applied voltage

V = VR + VL
V = IR + jIXL
V = I (R + jxL)
V
 R  jxL
I
= z impedance of circuit
Z = R + j xL
z  R 2  X L2

From phasor disgram,

x
tan  L
R
x 
  tan 1  L 
R

 is called the phasor angle and it is the angle between V and I, its value lies
between 0 to 900.

So impedence Z = R + jXL
= Z 

The current and voltage waveform of series RL Circuit is shown below.

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Figure 2.22
V = Vm sinωt
I = Im sin (ωt-ф)

The current I lags behind the applied voltage V by an angle ф.

From phasor diagram,

R
Power factor cos  
Z
Actual Power P = VI cos ф – Current component is phase with voltage
Reactive or Quadrature Power
Q = VI sinф – Current component is quadrature with voltage
Complex or Apparent Power
S = VI – Product of voltage and current
S = P + jQ

Problem
2.15) A series RL Circuit has
 2   5 
i  t   5 sin  314t   and V  t   20 sin  314t  
 3   3 

Determine (a) the impedence of the circuit

(b) the values of R1L and power factor
(c) average power of the circuit

Solution:
2
i (t) = 5 sin (314t + )
3
5
V(t) = 20 sin (314t + )
3
2 2  180
Phase angle of current θi = = = 120°
3 3
5 5  180
Phase angle of voltage θv = = = 150°
3 3
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Phase angle between voltage and current θ = θv ~ θi

= 150 – 120
θ = 300
Power factor = cos θ
= cos 30
= 0.866 (lagging)
Vm
Impedence of the circuit Z 
Im
20

5
Z = 4Ω
R
(i) But cos  
Z
R
0.866 =
4
R = 4 × 0.866
R = 3.46Ω
Z  R 2  X L2
X L  Z 2  R2
= (4)2  (3.46)2
XL = 2Ω
ωL = 2Ω
2
L 

2

3
4
L = 6.37 ×10-3 H
(ii) Average power = VI cos ф
20 5
 . (0.866)
2 2
= 43.3 watts

2.16) A coil having a resistance of 6Ω and an inductance of 0.03 H is

connected across a 100V, 50Hz supply, Calculate.
(i) The current
(ii) The phase angle between the current and the voltage
(iii) Power factor
(iv) Power

Solution:
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R = 6Ω
L = 0.03 H
XL = 2πfL
XL = 2π×50×0.03
XL = 9.42Ω
Z  ( R) 2  ( X L ) 2

 (6)2  (9.42)2
Z  11.17
V 100
(i) I = = = 8.95 amps
Z 11.17
X 
(ii) ф  tan 1  L 
 R 
 9.42 
 tan 1  
 6 
Ф = 57.5 (lagging)
(iii) Power factor = cos ф
= cos 57.5
= 0.537 (lagging)
(iv) Power = Average power
= VI cos Ф
= 100 ×8.95×0.537
Power = 480.6 Watts

2.17) A 10Ω resistor and a 20 mH inductor are connected is series across a

250V, 60 Hz supply. Find the impedence of the circuit, Voltage across the
resistor, voltage across the inductor, apparent power, active power and
reactive power.

Solution:
R = 10Ω
L = 20 mH = 20×10-3H
XL = 2πfL
= 2π×60×20×10-3
XL = 7.54Ω
(i) Z  R  (X L )2  (10)2  (7.54)2  12.5
V 250
(ii) I    20 amps
Z 12.5
VR = IR = 20×10=200 volts
(iii) VL = I XL = 20×7.54=150.8 volts
(iv) Apparent power S = VI
= 250×20
S= 5000VA
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R 10
cos     0.8 (lagging)
Z 12.5
Active power = VI cos ф
=250×20×0.8
P = 4000 Watts
sin   1  cos2   1  (0.8)2  0.6
Reactive Power Q = VI sin ф
= 250×20×0.6
Q= 3000 KVAR

2.18) Two impedances (5+j7)Ω and (10-j7)Ω are connected in series across a
200V supply. Calculate the current, power factor and power.

Solution:
Z1 = 5 + j7
Z2 = 10 - j7
V = 200 volts
ZTotal = Z1 +Z2
= 5 + j7 + 10 – j7
ZTotal = 15 < 0.
ф = 0.

Taking V as referenve,
V = 200 < 0°. Volts
V 200 0
(i) I   13.33 0 amps
Z 15 0
(ii) ф = 0
PF = cos ф = cos 0 = 1
(iii) Power = VI cos ф
= 200 ×13.33×1
Power = 2666 watts

2.5.5 RC Series Circuit

Let us consider the circuit shown in diagram in which a pure resistance R and
a pure capacitance C are connected in series.

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Figure 3.24

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Let
V = Vm sinωt be the applied voltage.
I = Circuit current of any instant
I = Effective value of circuit current
VR = Potential Difference across Resistor
Vc = Potential Difference across Capacitor
f = Frequency of applied voltage
The same Current I flows through R and C
Voltage across R = VR = IR in phase with I
Voltage across C = Vc = IXc lagging I by 900
Applied voltage V = IR– jIXc
=I (R – jxc)
V
 R  jX c  Z
I
Z – Impedence of circuit
Z  R 2  X c2
Phasor Diagram of RC series circuit is,

Figure 3.25

From Triangle
X c 1/  c 1
tan    
R R cR
 1 
  tan 1  
cR 

ф is called Phase angle and it is angle between V and I. Its value lies between
0 and –90o.

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The current and voltage waveform of series RC Circuit is,

Figure 3.26

V = Vm sin ωt
I = Im sin (ωt – ф)
The current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle ф.
From Phasor Diagram,
R
Power factor cos  
Z
Actual or real power P = VI cosф
Reactive or Quardrature power Q = VI sinф
Complex or Apparent Power S = P + jQ
= VI

Figure 3.27

PROBLEMS

3.20 A capacitor having a capacitarce of 10 μF is connected in series with a

non-inductive resistor of 120Ω across 100V, 50HZ calculate the current,
power and the Phase Difference between current and supply voltage.
(Non-inductive Resistor means a Pureresistor)

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Solution:
C = 10 μF
R = 120Ω
V = 100V
F = 50Hz
1 1
Xc  
2 fc 2  50  10  106
 318 
Z  R2  X c2
 340 
V
(a) I 
Z
100

340
 0.294 amps
X 
(b) PhaseDifference   tan 1  c 
 R 
 318 
 tan 1  
 120 
  69.3  ( Leading )
cos   cos (69.3)
 0.353 ( Leading )
Power  V I cos 
100  0.294  0.353
10.38 Watts

3.21 The Resistor R in series with capacitance C is connected to a 50HZ,

240V supply. Find the value of C so that R absorbs 300 watts at 100 volts.
Find also the maximum charge and the maximum stored energy in
capacitance.

Solution:
V = 240 volt
F = 50Hz

Power absorbed by R = 300 watts

Voltage across R = 100 volts

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V  VR  VC
2 2 2

VC  V  VR
2 2

 (240) 2  (100) 2
VC  218.2 volts

For Resistor, Power absorbed = 300 volts

I R  VR I  300
2

300 300
I    3amps
VR 100
VC
XC  ( Apply ohm ' s law for C )
I
218.2
  72.73 
3
1
 72.73
2 fc
1
C  43.77  106 F
2  50  72.73
C  43.77  F

Maximum charge = Qm = C × maximum Vc

Maximum stared energy = 1/2 (C × maximum Vc2)
Maximum Vc = 2 × Rms value of Vc
= 2 × 218.2 = 308.6 volts

Now

Maximum charge = Qm = 43.77 x 10-6 x 308.6

= 0.0135 Coulomb
Maximum energy stored
= ½ (43.77 x 10-6) (308.6)2
= 2.08 joules.

3.22 A Capacitor and Resistor are connected in series to an A.C. supply of 60

volts, 50HZ. The current is 2A and the power dissipated in the Resistor is 80
watts. Calculate (a) the impedance (b) Resistance (c) capacitance (d) Power
factor.

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Solution
V  60volts
F  50 Hz
I  2 amps

Power Dissipated = P = 80 watts

V 60
(a) Z    30
I 2
(b) As P  I 2 R
P 80
R 2
I 4
 20
(c) Since, Z  R2  X c 2
2

X c  ( z )2  R 2
 302  202  22.36
1
 22.36
2 fc
1
c
2 f (22.36)
1

2  50  22.36
= 142 × 10-6 F
C = 142 µF
R
(or) Power factor = cos  
Z
20
= 
30
= 0.67(Leading)

It is capacitive circuit.

3.23 A metal filament lamp, Rated at 750 watts, 100V is to be connected in

series with a capacitor across a 230V, 60Hz supply. Calculate (i) The
capacitance required (ii) The power factor

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Solution

Rating of the metal filament W =750watts

VR = 100 volts
W = I2R = VRI
W 750
I   7.5 amps
VR 100

It is like RC Series Circuit

So
V 2  VR2  VC2
VC  V 2  VR2

  230   100 
2 2

 207volts

Applying Ohm’s Law for C

V 207
XC  C 
I 7.5
 27.6
1
 27.6
2 fc
1 1
c 
2  f  27.6 2  60  27.6
 96.19  F
R
Power factor  cos  
Z
V 230
Z    30.7
I 7.5
W 750
R
2

I (7.5) 2
13.33
R
Powerfactor  cos  
Z
13.33
cos  
30.7
 0.434(Leading)

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3.5.6 RLC series circuit

Let v = RMS value of the voltage applied to series combination

I = RMS value of the current flowing
VR = voltage across R
VL = voltage across L
VC = voltage across C

Figure 3.28

A circuit consisting of pure R, pure L and pure C connected in series is

known as RLC series circuit.

Phasor diagram
Take I as reference
VR = I × R
VL = I × XL
VC = I × XC

Assume XL > XC

Then VL > VC

Figure 3.29

The above figure shows the phasor diagram for the combined circuit.
From the voltage triangle

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Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology

V  VR  ( VL  VC ) 2
2 2

 IR  ( IX L  IX C ) 2
2

 I  [ R 2  ( X L  X C )2 ]
2

V I R 2  ( X L  X C )2
V
Z 
I
Z  R 2  ( X L  X C )2
 R2  X 2  X  (X L  XC )

Three cases of Z

Case 1 If XL > XC
The circuit behaves like RL circuit. Current lags behind voltage. So power
factor is lagging.

Case 2 If XL < XC
The circuit behaves like RC circuit current leads applied voltage power factor
is leading.

Case 3 When XL = XC, the circuit behaves like pure resistance.

Current is in phase with the applied voltage power factor is unity.
Impedance triangle

Figure 3.30

For XL > XC For XL > XC.

1. If applied voltage
V = Vm sin ωt and ф is phase angle then ‘i’ is given by
1) i = Im sin (ωt - θ), for XL < XC
2) i = Im sin (ωt + θ), for XL > XC
3) i = Im sin ωt for XL = XC

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Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology

2. Impedance for RLC series circuit in complex form (or) rectangular

form is given by
Z = R + j (XL-XC)

Problems

3.24 In a RLC series circuit, the applied voltage is 5V. Drops across the
resistance and inductance are 3V and 1V respectively. Calculate the voltage
across the capacitor. Draw the phaser diagram.

V = 5V VR = 3V VL = 1V
V2 = VR2 + (VL –VC)2
(VL–VC)2 = V2–VR2
= 25–9 = 16
VL–VC = ±4
VC = VL±4 = 1+4
VC = 5V

3.25 A coil of resistance 10Ω and in inductance of 0.1H is connected in series

with a capacitance of 150μF across a 200v, 50HZ supply. Calculate

a) the inductive reactance of the coil.

b) the capacitive reactance
c) the reactance
d) current
e) power factor
R = 10Ω
L = 0.1 H
C = 150 μF = 150 x 10-6 F
V = 200V f = 50 Hz
a) XL= 2πfL = 2π (50) 0.1
= 31.4 Ω
1 1
b) X C  
2 fc 2 (50) (150 106 )
=21.2Ω
c) the reactance X = XL - XC
= 31.4 – 21.2
= 10.2 Ω (Inductive)
d) Z  R2  X 2

 102  (10.2) 2
14.28  ( Inductive)
V 200
I  14amps
Z 14.28

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Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology

R 100
e) P.F  cos   
Z 14.28
= 0.7 (lagging) (I lags behind V)

3.5.7 Parallel AC circuit

When the impedance and connected in parallel and the combination is excited
by AC source it is called parallel AC circuit.
Consider the parallel circuit shown in figure.
1 1
X C1  
2 fc1  c1
X C 2  2 fL2   L2

Impedance Z1  R12  X C12

 X C1 
1  tan 1  
 R1 
Z 2  R2 2  X 2 L 2
 X L2 
2  tan 1  
 R2 
Conductance = g
Susceptance = b
Admittance = y

Branch 1
R1
Conductance g1  2
Z1
X C1
b1  2
( positive)
Z1
Y1  g12  b12
Branch 2
R2
g2  2
Z2
XC2
b2  2
(Negative)
Z2
Y2  g 2 2  b2 2

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Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology

Total conductance G = g1 + g 2
Total Suceptance B = b1 – b2
Total admittance Y  G 2  B 2
Branch current I1  V Y1
I 2  V Y2
I V Y
B
Phase angle  tan 1   lag if B-negative
G
G
Power factor cos  
Y
Problems:

3.26 Two impedances of parallel circuit can be represented by (20 + j15) and
(10 – j60) Ω. If the supply frequency is 50 Hz, find the resistance, inductance
or capacitance of each circuit.

Z1 = 20 + j15 Ω
Z2 = 10 – j60 Ω
F = 50 Hz
Z1 = R1 + jXL
Z2 = R2 – jXC

J term positive for in inductive

J term negative for capacitive.
For circuit 1, R1 = 20Ω
X1 = XL = 2πfL = 2π (50) (L)
XL = 15
2π (50) L = 15
15
L 
2 (50)
L = 48 mH

For circuit 2
Z2 = 10 – j60
R2 = 10
X2 = XC = 60 Ω
1
ie, = 60
2 fC
1
C=
2 (50)60
C = 53 μF.
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Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology

2.3.27 Two circuits, the impedances of which are Z1 = (10 + j15) Ω and Z2 =
(6 – j8) Ω are connected in parallel. If the total current supplied is 15A. What
is the power taken by each branch.

Z1  (10  j15)  18.0356.3

Z 2  (6  j8)  10  53.13
I =15 A
Z2
I1  I (Current divider rule)
Z1  Z 2
1500 10  53.130

16  j 7
(Z1 +Z2 = 10 + j15 + 6–j8)
150  53.130
I1 
17.4623.63
I1  8.6  76.76 A

By KCL I2 = I – I1
 150  8.6 76.76
= 15 – (1.97 – j8.37)
= 15.5 – 32.7A

Power taken by branch 1

= power dissipated in resistance of branch 1
 I1 R1  (8.6)2 10
2

=739.6 watts

Power taken by branch 2

 I 2 R2
2

 (15.5)2  6
=1442 watts

3.28 A 100Ω resistance and 0.6H inductance are connected in parallel across
a 230v 50 Hz supply. Find the line current, impedance, power dissipated and
parameter of the equivalent series circuit.
Z1 = R = 100Ω
Z2 = j XL = j2πfL
= j (2π×50×0.6)
= j 188.5Ω
= 188.5  90
ZT  Z1 * Z 2

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Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology

Z1 Z 2 1000 188.590
 
Z1  Z 2 100  j188.5
1885090

213.462
= 88.33  28
 78  j 41.46  R  jX L

Total impedance ZT  88.33

R = 78Ω, XL = 41.46Ω
XL = 2πfLeq
41.46 = 2π × 50 × Leq
41.46
Leq 
2  50
Leq = 132 mH
= 30 – j40 + 24 +j32
= 54 – j8
= 54.6  – 8.43 A

Comparing ‘V’ and ‘IT’ current IT lag voltage ‘V’

 ф = 8.43° lag
Power factor = cos ф= cos 8.43
= 0.99 lag
True Power  W  V I cos 
=200 × 54.6 × cos 8.43
= 10802 watts
= 10.802 KW
Apparent Power  V I
= 200× 54.6
= 10920 VA = 10.920 KVA

Reactive Power  V I sin 

= 200 × 54.6 × sin 8.43
= 1601 VAR
= 1.601 KVAR

Let Z total = Total impedance

V 20000
Z Total  
I total 54.6  8.43
= 3.663  8.43
= 3.623 + j0.54
= R +j XL
R = 3.623Ω XL = 0.54 Ω
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 SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CIRCUIT THEORY – SEEA1201

UNIT-III- 3-PHASE AC CIRCUITS
 5. Three Phase A.C. Circuit

3.1
5.1 Comparison between single phase and three phase
Basis for Single Phase Three Phase
Comparison
Definition The power supply through one The power supply through three
conductor. conductors.
Wave Shape R R Y B

0 0
180 360
120

240

Number of Require two wires for Requires four wires for

wire completing the circuit completing the circuit
Voltage Carry 230V Carry 415V
Phase Name Split phase No other name
Network Simple Complicated
Loss Maximum Minimum
Power Supply R R
Connection Y Y
B B
N N

Consumer Load Consumer Load

Efficiency Less High

Economical Less More
Uses For home appliances. In large industries and for
running heavy loads.
5.2 Generation of three phase EMF

S
N
B Y

Figure 5.1 Generation of three phase emf

• According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we know that whenever a coil

is rotated in a magnetic field, there is a sinusoidal emf induced in that coil.

Bhavesh M Jesadia, EE Department Elements of Electrical Engineering (210005) 1

 5. Three Phase A.C. Circuit

• Now, we consider 3 coil C1(R-phase), C2(Y-phase) and C3(B-phase), which are displaced
1200 from each other on the same axis. This is shown in fig. 5.1.
• The coils are rotating in a uniform magnetic field produced by the N and S pols in the
counter clockwise direction with constant angular velocity.
• According to Faraday’s law, emf induced in three coils. The emf induced in these three
coils will have phase difference of 120 0. i.e. if the induced emf of the coil C 1 has phase of
00, then induced emf in the coil C2 lags that of C1 by 1200 and C3 lags that of C2 1200.

e eR=Emsinωt
eY=Emsin(ωt-120)
Em
eB=Emsin(ωt-240)

e
0 ωt

120
240

Figure 5.2 Waveform of Three Phase EMF

• Thus, we can write,

eR = Em sin t
(
eY = Em sin t − 1200 )
eB = Em sin ( t − 240 )
0

• The above equation can be represented by their phasor diagram as in the Fig. 5.3.
eB

120
120

eR
12
0

eY
Figure 5.3 Phasor Diagram of Three Phase EMF

5.3 Important definitions

➢ Phase Voltage
It is defined as the voltage across either phase winding or load terminal. It is denoted by Vph.
Phase voltage V RN, VYN and VBN are measured between R-N, Y-N, B-N for star connection and
between R-Y, Y-B, B-R in delta connection.

Bhavesh M Jesadia, EE Department Elements of Electrical Engineering (210005) 2

 5. Three Phase A.C. Circuit

➢ Line voltage
It is defined as the voltage across any two-line terminal. It is denoted by VL.
Line voltage V RY, VYB, VBR measure between R-Y, Y-B, B-R terminal for star and delta
connection both.
R
IR(line)
1 IR(line)
R
VRN(ph)

IR(ph)

h)

VR
(p
VB

(p
VRY(line) VRY(line)

h)

h)
IR
(p

(p
IB

h)
VBR(line)
N VY IY(ph)
N(
) ph
(ph ) IY(line)
IB
IY( VBR(line) 3 Y
) ph VY(ph) 2
ph )
N(
VB Y VYB(line)
IY(line) IB(line)
B
VYB(line)

B
IB(line)
Figure 5.4 Three Phase Star Connection System Figure 5.5 Three Phase Delta Connection System

➢ Phase current
It is defined as the current flowing through each phase winding or load. It is denoted by Iph.
Phase current IR(ph), IY(ph) and IB(Ph) measured in each phase of star and delta connection.
respectively.
➢ Line current
It is defined as the current flowing through each line conductor. It denoted by IL.
Line current IR(line), IY(line), and IB((line) are measured in each line of star and delta connection.
➢ Phase sequence
The order in which three coil emf or currents attain their peak values is called the phase
sequence. It is customary to denoted the 3 phases by the three colours. i.e. red (R), yellow
(Y), blue (B).
➢ Balance System
A system is said to be balance if the voltages and currents in all phase are equal in magnitude
and displaced from each other by equal angles.
➢ Unbalance System
A system is said to be unbalance if the voltages and currents in all phase are unequal in
magnitude and displaced from each other by unequal angles.
➢ Balance load
In this type the load in all phase are equal in magnitude. It means that the load will have the
same power factor equal currents in them.
➢ Unbalance load
In this type the load in all phase have unequal power factor and currents.

Bhavesh M Jesadia, EE Department Elements of Electrical Engineering (210005) 3

 5. Three Phase A.C. Circuit

5.4 Relation between line and phase values for voltage and current in case of
balanced delta connection.
➢ Delta (Δ) or Mesh connection, starting end of one coil is connected to the finishing end of
other phase coil and so on which giving a closed circuit.
Circuit Diagram
IR(line) 1
R

h)

VB
(p
VRY

VR

(p
h)

h)
IB
(p
VBR

(p
IR

h)
IY(ph)
IY(line)
Y 3
2 VY(ph)
VYB

B
IB(line)
Figure 5.6 Three Phase Delta Connection

• Let,
Line voltage, VRY = VYB = VBR = VL
Phase voltage, VR ( ph) = VY ( ph) = VB ( ph) = Vph
Line current , IR ( line ) = IY ( line ) = I B ( line ) = I line
Phase current , IR ( ph) = IY ( ph) = I B ( ph) = I ph
Relation between line and phase voltage
• For delta connection line voltage V L and phase voltage V ph both are same.
VRY = VR( ph )
VYB = VY ( ph )
VBR = VB ( ph )
VL = Vph
Line voltage = Phase Voltage
Relation between line and phase current
• For delta connection,
IR ( line ) =IR ( ph) − IB( ph)
IY( line ) =IY( ph) − IR ( ph)
IB( line ) = IB( ph) − IY( ph)

Bhavesh M Jesadia, EE Department Elements of Electrical Engineering (210005) 4

5. Three Phase A.C. Circuit

• i.e. current in each line is vector difference of two of the phase currents.
IB(line)

IB(

)
ph
ph

(
-IY
)
60

-IR(ph) IR(ph)

60 60

-IB
)
ph

ph(

IR(line)
IY(

IY(line)
)

Figure 5.7 Phasor Diagram of Three Phase Delta Connection

• So, considering the parallelogram formed by I R and IB.

IR ( line ) = IR ( ph)2 + IB( ph)2 + 2IR ( ph)IB( ph) cos

IL = Iph2 + Iph2 + 2IphIph cos60

1
IL = Iph2 + Iph2 + 2Iph2   
2
IL = 3Iph2
IL = 3Iph

• Similarly, IY( line ) = IB( line ) = 3 I ph

• Thus, in delta connection Line current = 3 Phase current

Power
P = VphIph cos + VphIph cos + VphIph cos 
P = 3VphIph cos
 I 
P = 3VL  L  cos
 3
P = 3VLILcos

Bhavesh M Jesadia, EE Department Elements of Electrical Engineering (210005) 5

 5. Three Phase A.C. Circuit

5.5 Relation between line and phase values for voltage and current in case of
balanced star connection.
➢ In the Star Connection, the similar ends (either start or finish) of the three windings are
connected to a common point called star or neutral point.
Circuit Diagram
R
IR(line)

VR(ph)

IR(ph)
VRY

N VB
VBR h)
(ph
)
I Y(p
IB(
ph
h) )
V Y(p
Y
IY(line)
VYB

B
IB(line)
Figure 5.8 Circuit Diagram of Three Phase Star Connection

• Let,
line voltage, VRY = VBY = VBR = VL
phase voltage, VR ( ph) = VY ( ph) = VB ( ph) = Vph
line current, IR( line ) = IY ( line ) = I B ( line ) = Iline
phase current , IR ( ph) = IY ( ph) = I B ( ph) = I ph
Relation between line and phase voltage
• For star connection, line current IL and phase current Iph both are same.
IR( line ) = IR( ph)
IY ( line ) = IY ( ph)
I B( line ) = I B( ph)
 IL = Iph
Line Current = Phase Current
Relation between line and phase voltage
• For delta connection,

Bhavesh M Jesadia, EE Department Elements of Electrical Engineering (210005) 6

5. Three Phase A.C. Circuit

VRY =VR ( ph) − VY( ph)

VYB =VY( ph) − VB( ph)
VBR =VB( ph) − VR ( ph)
• i.e. line voltage is vector difference of two of the phase voltages. Hence,

VBR VRY

VB

H)
(P

(P
H)

-VY
60
60

-VR(PH) VR(PH)

60
H)
(P

-VB
VY

(P
H)

VYB
Figure 5.9 Phasor Diagram of Three Phase Star Connection

From parallelogram,
VRY = VR ( ph)2 + VY( ph)2 + 2VR ( ph) VY( ph) cos

 VL = Vph2 + Vph2 + 2VphVph cos60

 VL = Vph2 + Vph2 + 2Vph2  1 ( 2)

 VL = 3Vph2
 VL = 3Vph

• Similarly, VYB = VBR = 3 Vph

• Thus, in star connection Line voltage = 3 Phase voltage
Power
P = Vph I ph cos + Vph I ph cos + Vph I ph cos
P = 3Vph I ph cos
V 
P = 3 L  I L cos
 3
 P = 3VL I L cos

Bhavesh M Jesadia, EE Department Elements of Electrical Engineering (210005) 7

 5. Three Phase A.C. Circuit

5.6 Measurement of power in balanced 3-phase circuit by two-watt meter

method
• This is the method for 3-phase power measurement in which sum of reading of two
wattmeter gives total power of system.
Circuit Diagram
I R(line) M L
R

C V

Z1
VRY

Z3
Z2
I Y(line)
Y
C V
VBY

B
IB(lline)M L

Figure 5.10 Circuit Diagram of Power Measurement by Two-Watt Meter in Three Phase Star Connection

• The load is considered as an inductive load and thus, the phasor diagram of the inductive
load is drawn below in Fig. 5.11.
VBY

-VY
VRY
VB 0
30 I
B


0
30
IY   VR
I
R

VY

Figure 5.11 Phasor Diagram of Power Measurement by Two-Watt Meter in Three Phase Star Connection

Bhavesh M Jesadia, EE Department Elements of Electrical Engineering (210005) 8

5. Three Phase A.C. Circuit

• The three voltages V RN, VYN and V BN, are displaced by an angle of 120 0 degree electrical as
shown in the phasor diagram. The phase current lag behind their respective phase voltages
by an angle  . The power measured by the Wattmeter, W 1 and W2.
Reading of wattmeter, W1 = VRY IR cos1 = VL IL cos (30 +  )
Reading of wattmeter, W2 = VBY IB cos2 = VL IL cos (30 −  )
Total power, P = W 1+W2
 P = VL I L cos (30 +  ) + VL I L cos (30 −  )
= VL I L cos (30 +  ) + cos (30 −  ) 
=VL I L cos30cos + sin30sin  + cos30cos  − sin30sin  
= VL I L 2cos30cos 
  3 
= VL I L 2  cos 
 
  2  
= 3VL I L cos
• Thus, the sum of the readings of the two wattmeter is equal to the power absorbed in a 3-
phase balanced system.
Determination of Power Factor from Wattmeter Readings
• As we know that
W1 + W2 = 3VL IL cos
Now,
W1 − W2 = VL I L cos (30 +  ) − VL IL cos (30 −  )
= VL I L cos30cos + sin30sin  − cos30cos  + sin30sin  
= VL I L 2sin30sin  
 1 
= VL I L 2  sin   = VL IL sin 
 2 
3 (W1 − W2 ) 3VL IL sin 
 = = tan 
(W1 + W2 ) 3VL IL cos
3 (W1 − W2 )
 tan  =
(W1 + W2 )
• Power factor of load given as,
 3 (W1 − W2 ) 
cos = cos  tan −1 

 (W1 + W2 ) 

Bhavesh M Jesadia, EE Department Elements of Electrical Engineering (210005) 9

5. Three Phase A.C. Circuit

Effect of power factor on wattmeter reading:

• From the Fig. 5.6, it is clear that for lagging power factor cos  , the wattmeter readings are
W1 = VL IL cos (30 +  )
W2 = VL IL cos (30 −  )
• Thus, readings W 1 and W2 will very depending upon the power factor angle  .

p.f  W1 = VL IL cos (30 +  ) W2 = VL IL cos (30 −  ) Remark

cos = 1 00 3 3 Both equal and +ve

VL I L VL I L
2 2
cos  = 0.5 600 0 3 One zero and second total
VL I L power
2
cos = 0 900 1 1 Both equal but opposite
− VL I L VL I L
2 2

Bhavesh M Jesadia, EE Department Elements of Electrical Engineering (210005) 10

 SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CIRCUIT THEORY – SEEA1201

UNIT-IV- TRANSIENT RESPONSE ANALYSIS
Unit IV: TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
7.1 INTRODUCTION

So far steady state analysis of electric circuits was discussed. Electric circuits will be
subjected to sudden changes which may be in the form of opening and closing of
switches or sudden changes in sources etc. Whenever such a change occurs, the
circuit which was in a particular steady state condition will go to another steady state
condition. Transient analysis is the analysis of the circuits during the time it changes
from one steady state condition to another steady state condition.

Transient analysis will reveal how the currents and voltages are changing during the
transient period. To get such time responses, the mathematical models should
necessarily be a set of differential equations. Setting up the mathematical models for
transient analysis and obtaining the solutions are dealt with in this chapter.

A quick review on various test signals is presented first. Transient response of simple
circuits using classical method of solving differential equations is then discussed.
Laplace Transform is a very useful tool for solving differential equations. After
introducing the Laplace Transform, its application in getting the transient analysis is
also discussed.
 What is TRANSIENT ANALYSIS?
S1 R

S2
E C

S1 R 1 vC R 1
With steady
vC
S2 state
E condition, at
iC C
time t = 0 iC C
switch position
0 is changed 0
from S1 and S2

For t ≥ 0, both vC and iC change with respect time.

Step function

Step function is denoted as u(t) and is described by

u(t) = X for t ≥ 0
(7.2)
= 0 for t < 0

Fig. (a) shows a step function.

u(t) u(t)

X
1.0

0 t 0 t

(a) (b)

The step function with X = 1 is called as unit step function. It is described as

u(t) = 1.0 for t ≥ 0

(7.3)
= 0 for t < 0

Unit step function is shown in Fig. (b).

Exponentially decaying function

Exponentially decaying function is described by

x(t) = X e - α t for t ≥ 0
(7.4)
= 0 for t < 0

The value of this function decreases exponentially with time as shown in Fig. below.

x(t) x(t)

X X

0 t 0 t
(a) (b)
For exponentially decaying function, the time required for the signal to reach zero value,
when it is decreased at a constant rate, equal to the rate of decay at time t = 0, is called
TIME CONSTANT. Time constant is the measure of rate of decay.

x(t)

0.368 X

0 τ t

Consider the exponentially decaying signal shown and described by

x(t) = X e - α t (7.5)

Its slope at time t = 0 is given by

dx
= - α X e -αt =-αX (7.6)
dt t=0 t=0

Minus sign indicates that the function value is decreasing with increase in time. Then,
X 1
as stated by the definition, time constant τ is given by τ = = (7.7)
αX α
For this exponentially decaying function, knowing α τ = 1, the value of x(t) at time t = τ
is obtained as

= Xe -αt = X e - 1 = 0.368 X
x(t) t= τ t= τ

Therefore, for exponentially decaying function, time constant τ is also defined as the
time required for the function to reach 36.8 % of its value at time t = 0. This aspect is
shown in previous Fig.

Now consider the two exponentially decaying signals shown. They are described by

x(t) x1 (t) = X e - α1 t
x1 (t) = X e  α 1 t

X x2 (t) = X e - α2 t
x2 (t)= X e  α2 t

0 τ1 τ2 t

Their time constants are τ1 and τ 2 respectively. It is seen that τ1 < τ 2 and hence

α1 > α2. Further, it can be noted that, smaller the time constant faster is the rate of
decay.
Exponentially increasing function

The plot of x(t) = X (1 - e- α t) (7.36)

is shown in the Fig. It is to be seen that at time t = 0, the function value is zero and the
function value tends to X as time t tends to ∞. This is known as exponentially increasing
function x(t)

0.632 X

τ t

For such exponentially increasing function, time constant, τ is the time required for the
function to reach the final value, if the function is increasing at the rate given at time
t = 0.

dx X 1
= 0 + α X e -αt =αX Therefore τ=  (7.37)
dt t=0 t=0 αX α

The value of x(t) at time t = τ is obtained as x(t) = X (1 - e-1) = 0.632 X (7.38)

Thus, for exponentially increasing function, time constant τ is also defined as the time
taken for the function to reach 63.2 % of the final value. This is shown in Fig. above.
In the Fig. (a) shown below, x(t) is continuous.

x(t)
x(t)

0 0
t t1 t

(a) (b)

dx
In Fig. (b) shown, x(t) has discontinuity at time t = t 1. The value of at time t = t1
dt
tends to infinity.
7.3 CERTAIN COMMON ASPECTS OF RC AND RL CIRCUITS

While doing transient analysis on simple RC and RL circuits, we need to make use of
the following two facts.

1. The voltage across a capacitor as well as the current in an inductor cannot

have discontinuity.

2. With dc excitation, at steady state, capacitor will act as an open circuit and
inductor will act as a short circuit.

These two aspects can be explained as follows.

The current through a capacitor is given by iC = C (dv / dt). If the voltage across the
capacitor has discontinuity, then at the time when the discontinuity occurs, dv / dt
becomes infinity resulting the current iC to become infinity. However, in physical
system, we exclude the possibility of infinite current. Then, we state that in a capacitor,
the voltage cannot have discontinuity. Suppose, if the circuit condition is changed at
time t = 0, the capacitor voltage must be continuous at time t = 0 and hence
vC(0+) = vC(0-). (7.14)

where time 0+ refers the time just after t = 0 and time 0- refers the time just before t = 0.
Similarly the voltage across an inductor is vL = L (di / dt). If the current through the
inductor has discontinuity, then at the time when the discontinuity occurs, di / dt
becomes infinity resulting the voltage vL to become infinity. However, in physical
system, we exclude the possibility of infinite voltage. Then, we state that in an inductor,
the current cannot have discontinuity. Suppose, if the circuit condition is changed at
time t = 0, the inductor current must be continuous at time t = 0 and hence
iL(0+) = iL(0-) (7.15)

With dc excitation, at steady state condition, all the element currents and voltages are
of dc in nature. Therefore, both di / dt and dv / dt will be zero. Since i C = C (dv / dt) and
vL = L (di / dt), with dc excitation, at steady state condition, the current through the
capacitor as well as the voltage across the inductor will be zero. In other words, with dc
excitation, at steady state condition, the capacitor will act as an open circuit and the
inductor will act as a short circuit.
Switching occurs at time t = 0
vC(0+) = vC(0-) iL(0+) = iL(0-)

With DC excitation, at steady state

capacitor acts as OPEN CIRCUIT and
inductor acts as SHORT CIRCUIT
7.4 TRANSIENT IN RC CIRCUIT

While studying the transient analysis of RC and RL circuits, we shall encounter with two
types of circuits namely, source free circuit and driven circuit.

Source free circuit

A circuit that does not contain any source is called a source free circuit. Consider the
circuit shown in Fig. 7.7 (a). Let us assume that the circuit was in steady state condition
with the switch is in position S 1 for a long time. Now, the capacitor is charged to
voltage E and will act as open circuit.

S1 R R 1
vC
S2
E
C iC
C

0
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.7 Source free RC circuit.

Suddenly, at time t = 0, the switch is moved to position S 2. The voltage across the
capacitor and the current through the capacitor are designated as vC and i C
respectively. The voltage across the capacitor will be continuous. Hence

vC(0+) = vC(0-) = E (7.16)

The circuit for time t > 0 is shown in Fig. 7.7 (b). We are interested in finding the voltage
across the capacitor as a function of time. Later, if required, current through the
dv
capacitor can be calculated from iC = C . Voltage at node 1 is the capacitor voltage
dt
vC. The node equation for the node 1 is
R 1
vC dv C vC
C 0 (7.17)
R dt
iC
C
dv C v
i.e.  C 0 (7.18)
dt RC
Fig. 7.7 (b) 0

We have to solve this first order differential equation (DE) with the initial condition

vC(0+) = E (7.19)

We notice that DE in Eq. (7.18) is a homogeneous equation and hence will have only
complementary solution. Let us try vC(t) = K est (7.20)

as a possible solution of Eq. (7.18).

dv C v
 C  0 with the initial condition vC(0+) = E
dt RC

A possible solution is: vC(t) = K est

Substituting the solution in the DE. we get

1 1
s K est  K est = 0 i.e. K est ( s + )=0
RC RC

The above equation will be satisfied if

1
K est = 0 and or (s + )=0
RC

From Eq. (7.20) it can be seen that K est = 0 will lead to the trivial solution of vC(t) = 0.
We are looking for the non-trivial solution of Eq. (7.18). Therefore

1
s+ =0 (7.21)
RC
 1
s+ =0 (7.21)
RC

1
This is the characteristic equation of the DE given in Eq. (7.18). Its solution s = - is
RC
called the root of the characteristic equation. It is also called as the natural frequency
because it characterizes the response of the circuit in the absence of any external
1
source. Thus the solution of the DE (7.18) is obtained by substituting s = - in the
RC
solution vC(t) = K est. Therefore,

1
 t
RC
vC(t) = K e (7.22)

The constant K can be found out by using the initial condition of vC(0) = E Substituting
t = 0 in the above equation, we get

vC(0) = K = E (7.23)

1
 t
RC
Thus the solution is vC(t) = E e (7.24)
 1
 t
RC
Thus the solution is vC(t) = E e (7.24)

It can be checked that this solution satisfy

dv C v
 C  0 with the initial condition vC(0+) = E
dt RC

Obtained solution is sketched in Fig. 7.8. It is an exponentially decaying function.

vC(t)
E

0 t
Fig. 7.8 Plot of vC(t) as given by Equation (7.24).

In this case, the time constant τ = RC. By varying values of R and C, we can get
different exponentially decaying function for vC(t). The dimension of time constant RC
can be verified as time as shown below.

volt coulomb amp. sec.

RC =   sec.
amp. volt amp.
 1
 t
RC
vC(t) = E e (7.24)

The current through the capacitor, in the direction as shown in Fig. 7.7 (b), is given by

1 R 1
dv C 1  t
iC(t) = C  C E ( )e RC vC
dt RC

iC
C
1
E  t
RC
=- e (7.25)
R Fig. 7.7 (b) 0

Since the capacitor is discharging, the current is negative in the direction shown in
Fig. 7.7 (b). The plot of capacitor current iC(t) is shown in Fig. 7.9.

iC(t)

E
-
R

Fig. 7.9 Plot of iC(t) as given by Equation (7.25).

Driven circuit

Again consider the circuit shown in Fig. 7.7 (a) which is reproduced in Fig. 7.10 (a). Let
us say that the switch was in position S 2 long enough so that vC(t) = 0 and i C(t) = 0 i.e.
all the energy in the capacitor is dissipated and the circuit is at rest. Now, the switch is
moved to position S 1. We shall measure time from this instant. As discussed earlier,
since the capacitor voltage cannot have discontinuity,

vC(0+) = vC(0-) = 0 (7.26)

The circuit applicable for time t > 0, is shown in Fig. 7.10 (b).
S1 R R vC
1
S2
E E
C C
iC

0
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.10 Driven RC circuit.

Node equation for the node 1 gives

vC  E dv C dv C v E
C 0 (7.27) i.e.  C  (7.28)
R dt dt RC RC
dv C v E
 C  (7.28)
dt RC RC

Unlike in the previous case, now the right hand side is not zero, but contains a term
commonly called the forcing function. For this reason, this circuit is classified as driven
circuit. The initial condition for the above DE is

vC(0+) = 0 (7.29)

The complete solution is given by

vC(t) = vcs(t) + vps(t) (7.30)

where vcs(t) is the complementary solution and vps(t) is the particular solution.

The complementary solution vcs(t) is the solution of the homogeneous equation

dv C v
 C 0 (7.31)
dt RC

Recalling that Eq. (7.22) is the solution of Eq. (7.18), we get

1
 t
RC
vcs(t) = K e (7.32)
Since the forcing function is a constant, the particular solution can be taken as

vps (t) = A

dv C v E
Since it satisfies the non-homogeneous equation given by Eq. (7.28),  C 
dt RC RC
on substitution, we get

A E
0  i.e. A = E.
RC RC

Thus vps (t) = E (7.33)

1
 t
RC
Addition of vcs (t) and vps (t) yields vC(t) = K e +E (7.34)

To determine the value of K, apply the initial condition of vC(0) = 0 to the above
equation. Thus

0=K+E i.e. K = - E

1 1
 t  t
RC RC
Thus, the complete solution is vC(t) = - E e +E = E (1 - e ) (7.35)
 1
 t
RC
The plot of capacitor voltage vC(t) = E (1 - e ) is shown in Fig. 7.11.

For this function, time constant τ is = RC.

The current through the capacitor is calculated as

R vC

1 1
dv C E t
iC(t) = C = C e RC
dt RC E
C
iC
1
E RCt
= e 0 (7.39)
R Fig. 7.10 (b)

Now, the capacitor current as marked in Fig. 7.10 (b), is positive and the capacitor gets
charged. This capacitor current is plotted as shown in Fig. 7.12.

vC (t)
iC(t)
E
E
R

0.632 E

0 t
τ t
Fig. 7.11 Plot of vC(t) as given by Eqn. (7.35). Fig. 7.12 Plot of iC(t) as given by Eqn. (7.39).
We have solved the circuits shown in Fig. 7.10 (b) and the resulting solutions are shown
in Figs. 7.11 and 7.12. They are reproduced in Fig. 7.13.
vC (t) iC (t)
R vC
1 E
E
R
E
iC
C

0 t 0 t
Fig. 7.13 RC driven circuit and voltage and current responses.

These results can be obtained straight away recognizing the following facts.

The solution of first order differential equation will be either exponentially decreasing or
exponentially increasing. It is known that vC(0+) = 0. With dc excitation, at steady state,
the capacitor will act as open circuit and hence vC(  ) = E. Thus, the capacitor voltage
exponentially increases from 0 to E.

E
Since vC(0+) = 0, initially the capacitor is short circuited and hence i C(0) = . With dc
R
excitation, at steady state, the capacitor will act as open circuit and hence i C(  ) = 0.
E
Thus the capacitor current exponentially decreases from to zero.
R

Similar reasoning out is possible, in other cases also, to obtain the responses directly.
More general case of finding the capacitor voltage

In the previous discussion, it was assumed that the initial capacitor voltage v C(0) = 0.
There may be very many situations wherein initial capacitor voltage is not zero. There
may be initial charge in the capacitor resulting non-zero initial capacitor voltage
(Example 7.8). Further, the circuit arrangements can also cause non-zero initial
capacitor voltage. For this purpose consider the circuit shown below. The switch was in
position S1 for a long time. It is moved from position S1 to S2 at time t = 0.

R1 S1 S2 R2

t=0
E1 E2
C
 R1 S1 S2 R2

t=0
E1 E2
C

We shall assume the following:

1. At time t = 0- the circuit was at steady state condition with the switch in position S 1

2. After switching to position S2, the circuit is allowed to reach the steady state condition

Thus, we are interested about the transient analysis for one switching period only.

Initial capacitor voltage vC(0) is E1 and the final capacitor voltage vC(  ),will be E2.

The more general expression for the capacitor voltage can be obtained as

1
 t
vC(t) = vC(  ) + [vC(0) - vC(  )] e R2 C
(7.47)
Summary of formulae useful for transient analysis on RC circuits

1. Time constant τ = RC α = 1 / RC

2. When the capacitor is discharging from the initial voltage of E

1
vC(t)
 t
vC(t) = E e RC E

t
3. When the capacitor is charged from zero initial voltage to final voltage of E
1
vC(t)
 t
RC
vC(t) = E ( 1 - e ) E

t
4. When the capacitor voltage changes from vC(0) to v C ()
vC(t)
1
 t
vC(t) = vC(  ) + [vC(0) - vC(  )] e RC vC(∞)

Plot of vC(t) depends on values of vC(0) and vC(  )

dv C (t) t
5. Capacitor current iC(t) = C
dt vC(0)
Example 7.1 An RC circuit has R = 20 Ω and C = 400 µF. What is its time constant?

Solution For RC circuit, time constant τ = RC.

Therefore, τ = 20 x 400 x 10-6 s = 8 ms

Example 7.2 A capacitor in an RC circuit with R = 25 Ω and C = 50 µF is being

charged with initial zero voltage. What is the time taken for the capacitor voltage to
reach 40 % of its steady state value?

Solution With R = 25 Ω and C = 50 µF, τ = RC = 1.25 x 10-3 s; hence 1/RC = 800 s-1.
1
 t
RC
Taking the capacitor steady state voltage as E, vC(t) = E (1 - e )
Let t1 be the time at which the capacitor voltage becomes 0.4 E. Then

 800 t 1  800 t 1
0.4 E = E (1- e ) i.e. 0.4 = 1 - e
 800 t 1
e = 0.6 i.e. - 800 t1 = ln 0.6 = - 0.5108

0.5108
Therefore, t1 = s  0.6385 x 10 3 s  0.6385 ms
800
Example 7.3 In an RC circuit, having a time constant of 2.5 ms, the capacitor
discharges with initial voltage of 80 V. (a) Find the time at which the capacitor voltage
reaches 55 V, 30 V and 10 V (b) Calculate the capacitor voltage at time 1.2 ms, 3 ms
and 8 ms.

1 1000
Solution (a) Time constant RC = 2.5 ms; Thus = = 400 s-1
RC 2.5

During discharge, capacitor voltage is given by vC(t) = 80 e- 400 t V

Let t1, t2 and t3 be the time at which capacitor voltage becomes 55 V, 30 V and 10 V.

 400 t 1 55
55 = 80 e ; - 400 t1 = ln = - 0.3747; Thus t1 = 0.93765 ms
80

 400 t 2 30
30 = 80 e ; - 400 t2 = ln = - 0.9808; Thus t2 = 2.452 ms
80

 400 t 3 10
10 = 80 e ;- 400 t3 = ln = - 2.0794; Thus t3 = 5.1985 ms
80

(b) vC(1.2x 10-3) = 80 e- 400 t = 80 e-0.48 = 49.5027 V

vC(3x 10-3) = 80 e- 400 t = 80 e-1.2 = 24.0955 V

vC (8x 10-3) = 80 e- 400 t = 80 e-3.2 = 3.261 V

Example 7.4 Consider the circuit shown below.
Given
i
+
vC(t) = 56 e- 250 t V for t > 0
R C vC(t)
i(t) = 7 e- 250 t mA for t > 0
-

(a) Find the values of R and C. (b) Determine the time constant.

(c) At what time the voltage vC(t) will reach half of its initial value?

1
Solution (a) Given that vC(t) = 56 e- 250 t V. Therefore τ = RC = s
250

v C (t) 1
Resistance R =  8000 Ω ; Thus capacitance C = F  0.5 μF
i (t) 250 X 8000

(b) Time constant = RC = 4 x 10 -3 s = 4 ms

(c) Let t1 be the time taken for the voltage to reach half of its initial value of 56 V.
 250 t 1  250 t 1
Then, 56 e = 28; i.e. e = 0.5 i.e. - 250 t1 = ln 0.5 = - 0.6931;

0.6931
Time t1 = s  2.7724 x 10 3 s  2.7724 ms
250
Example 7.5

Find the time constant of the RC circuit shown in below.

20 Ω 44 Ω

+
30 V 80 Ω 0.5 mF
-

Solution Thevenin’s equivalent across the capacitor, is shown below.

RTh 20 Ω 44 Ω

+
VTh 0.5 mF 80 Ω RTh
-

(a) (b)

Referring to Fig. (b) above, RTh = 44 + (20││80) = 60 Ω

Time constant τ = RC = 60 x 0.5 x 10-3 s = 30 ms

Example 7.6 The switch in circuit shown was in position1 for a long time. It is moved
from position 1 to position 2 at time t = 0. Sketch the wave form of vC(t) for t > 0.

5 kΩ 1 t=0

2
+
75 V 500 µF
8 kΩ
-

Solution With switch is in position 1, capacitor gets charged to a voltage of 75 V.

i.e. vC(0+) = 75 V. The switch is moved to position 2 at time t = 0.
vC (t)
Time constant RC = 8 X 10 3 X 500 X 10-6 = 4 s

Finally the capacitor voltage decays to zero. Thus, 75 V

vC(t) = 75 e- 0..25 t

Wave form of the capacitor voltage is shown.

0 t
Example 7.7 A series RC circuit has a constant voltage of E, applied at time t = 0 as
shown in Fig. below. The capacitor has no initial charge. Find the equations for i, v R
and vC. Sketch the wave shapes.
t=0
vR
+ - 1
E = 100 V
R +
E C vC R = 5000 Ω
i - C = 20 µF
0
Solution Since there is no initial charge, vC(0+) = vC(0-) = 0

For t ˃ 0, capacitor is charged to final voltage of 100 V. 100 V

vC (t)
Time constant RC = 5000 x 20 x 10 -6 = 0.1 sec.


1
t
vR (t)
RC
vC(t) = E (1 - e ). Thus, vC(t) = 100 (1 - e-10 t) V t
i(t)
dv C
i(t) = C -6 -10 t = 0.02 e-10 t A 0.02 A
dt = 20 X 10 X 100 x 10 e

Voltage across the resistor is vR(t) = R i(t) = 100 e-10 t V

Wave shapes of i, vR(t) and vC(t) are shown. 0 t

Example 7.8 A 20 µF capacitor in the RC circuit shown has an initial charge of
q0 = 500 µC with the polarity as shown. The switch is closed at time t = 0. Find the
current transient and the voltage across the capacitor. Find the time at which the
capacitor voltage is zero. Also sketch their wave shape.

R
1
E = 50 V
t=0 -
E C q0 R = 1000 Ω
i + C = 20 µF
0
Solution Initial charge of q0 in the capacitor is equivalent to initial voltage of

q0 500 X 10 6
vC(0) = -  6
  25 V ; Further, vC(  ) = E = 50 V
C 20 X 10

Time constant RC = 1000 X 20 X 10-6 = 20 X 10-3 s. Thus 1/RC = 50 s-1

1
 t
vC(t) = vC(  ) + [vC(0) - vC(  )] e RC

vC(t) = 50 + [ - 25 - 50 ] e- 50 t = 50 - 75 e- 50 t

dv C
Current i(t) = C = 20 X 10-6 X 75 X 50 e-50 t A = 0.075 e-50 t A
dt
Let t1 be the time at which the capacitor voltage becomes zero. Then
 50 t 1  50 t 1
50 - 75 e = 0 i.e. e = 0.6667

- 50 t1 = - 0.4054 i.e. t1 = 8.108 X 10-3 s

The capacitor voltage becomes zero at time t1 = 8.108 ms

Wave forms are shown in Fig. 7.24

i(t) vC (t)
50 V
0.075 A

t
0 t - 25 V

Fig. 7.24 Wave forms - Example 7.8.

Example 7.9

Consider the circuit shown below. The switch was in closed position for a long time. It is
opened at time t = 0. Find the current i(t) for t > 0.
500 Ω t=0

+ 50 Ω
35 V 200 Ω
- i
2 mF

500 Ω
Solution Circuit at time t = 0 - is shown.
+ 50 Ω
35 V
+ 200 Ω
- iC(t) -
200 vC(0 )
vC(0-) = 35 X  10 V
200  500 -

For time t > 0, capacitor voltage of 10 V is discharged through a resistor of 250 Ω.

Time constant RC = 250 X 2 X 10-3 = 0.5 s; vC(t) = 10 e-2 t V

dv C -2 t -3 -2 t -2 t
iC(t) = C = 2 X 10-3 X ( - 20) e A = - 40 X 10 e A = - 0.04 e A
dt
Thus i(t) = - iC(t) = 0.04 e-2 t A
Example 7.10 Consider the circuit shown. The switch was in open position for a long
time. It is operated as shown. Compute and plot the capacitor voltage for t > 0. Also find
the time at which the capacitor voltage is 50 V.
2.5 F

+ vC -
+
t=0
80 V 20 Ω 3A
-
16 Ω

Solution Circuit at time t = 0 - is shown in Fig. (a).

2.5 F 2.5 F
A B A B
+ vC(0) - + vC -
+ +
80 V 20 Ω 3A 80 V 3A
- -
16 Ω 16 Ω
0 0

(a) (b)
Capacitor acts as open circuit. I16 Ω = 0. Voltage V A = 80 V and voltage V B = 60 V

Thus vC(0) = 20 V
With the switch is in closed position, the circuit will be as shown in Fig. (b). With the
steady state reached, Capacitor acts as open circuit. I16 Ω = 0.

Voltage V A = 80 V and voltage V B = 0 V. Thus vC(  ) = 80 V

vC (t)
RC = 16 X 2.5 = 40 s
80 V
1
 t
Using vC(t) = vC(  ) + [vC(0) - vC(  )] e RC
we get

vC(t) = 80 + [20 - 80] e-0.025 t = 80 - 60 e-0.025 t V 20 V

Plot of the capacitor voltage is shown. t

Let t1 be the time at which the capacitor voltage = 50 V. Then

80 - 60 e  0.025 t 1 = 50 i.e. 60 e  0.025 t 1 = 30 i.e. e  0.025 t 1 = 0.5 i.e. - 0.025 t1 = - 0.6932

Thus t1 = 27.728 s

Capacitor voltage becomes 50 V at time t1 = 27.728 s

Example 7.11 Consider the circuit shown below. The switch was in position S 1 for a
long time. It is operated as shown. Compute and plot the capacitor voltage for t > 0.
Also find the time at which the capacitor voltage becomes zero.
5Ω S2 S1 8Ω
t=0
+ -
25 V 20 Ω 20 V
0.5 F
-
+

Solution Voltage vC(0) = - 20 V

Circuit for time t > 0 and its Thevenin’s equivalent are shown below.
5Ω S2 RTh S2

+ +
25 V 20 Ω VTh
0.5 F 0.5 F
- i - i

20
VTh = X 25  20 V RTh = 5││ 20 = 4 Ω; Thus RC = 4 x 0.5 = 2 s
20  5
1
 t
Using vC(t) = vC(  ) + [vC(0) - vC(  )] e RC
we get

vC(t) = 20 + [ - 20 - 20] e-0.5 t = 20 - 40 e-0.5 t V

vC(t) = 20 - 40 e-0.5 t V

dv C -0.5 t
iC(t) = C = 0.5 X 20 e A = 10 e-0.5 t A
dt

Wave shapes of vC(t) and iC(t) are shown below.

vC(t) i(t)

10 A
20 V

t 0 t

- 20 V

Let t1 be the time at which the capacitor voltage reaches zero value. Then

20 - 40 e  0.5 t 1 = 0; i.e. e  0.5 t 1 = 0.5; i.e. - 0.5 t1 = - 0.6931; Thus t1 = 1.3863 s

Capacitor voltage reaches zero value at time t1 = 1.3863 s

So far we have done transient analysis for one switching period. Now we shall illustrate
how to carry out transient analysis for two switching period through an example.
Example 7.12 In the initially relaxed RC circuit shown the switch is closed on to
position S1 at time t = 0. After one time constant, the switch is moved on to position S 2.
Find the complete capacitor voltage and current transients and show their wave forms.

S1 R
vC
E1 = 20 V; E2 = 40 V
S2
E1 C R = 500 Ω
E2
iC
C = 0.5 µF
0

Solution RC = 500 X 0.5 X 10-6 s = 0.25 X 10-3 s = 0.25 ms 1/RC = 4000 s-1

During the first switching period, capacitor gets charged from zero volt. Its voltage
exponentially increases towards 20 V. Thus

vC(t) = 20 (1 - e- 4000 t) V

At t = 1 time constant, vC = 20 (1 - e-1) = 12.64 V

For the second switching operation, there is initial capacitor voltage of 12.64 V.
Let the second switching occurs at time t’ = 0. Time t’ = 0 implies time t = 0.25 X 10 -3 s
i.e. t’ = t - 0.25 X 10-3. For t’ > 0, capacitor voltage changes from its initial value, vC(0),
of 12.64 V to final value, vC () , of - 40 V. Knowing that

1
 t
vC(t) = vC(  ) + [vC(0) - vC(  )] e RC
we get

vC(t’) = - 40 + [12.64 + 40] e - 4000 t’ = 52.64 e- 4000 t’ - 40 V

Therefore, capacitor voltages for the two switching periods are

vC(t) = 20 (1 - e- 4000 t) V for t > 0 and ≤ 0.00025 s

vC(t) = 52.64 e- 4000 (t - 0.00025) - 40 V for t ≥ 0.00025 s

with vC(0.00025-) = vC(0.00025+) = 12.64 V

(Note that the capacitor voltage shall maintain continuity)

Knowing that

vC(t) = 20 (1 - e- 4000 t) V for t > 0 and ≤ 0.00025 s

vC(t) = 52.64 e- 4000 (t - 0.00025) - 40 V for t ≥ 0.00025 s

For the first switching period

dv C
Capacitor current i C(t) = C = 0.5 X 10-6 X 20 X 4000 e- 4000 t = 0.04 e- 4000 t A
dt

iC(0.00025-) = 0.04 e-1 = 0.01472 A

For the second switching period,

vC(t’) = 52.64 e- 4000 t’ - 40 V

iC(t’) = 0.5 X 10-6 X ( - 52.64 X 4000 e- 4000 t’) = - 0.10528 e- 4000 t’ A

i.e. iC(t - 0.00025) = - 0.10528 e- 4000 (t - 0.00025) A i C(0.00025+) = - 0.10528 A

 vC(t) iC(t)
20 V 0.04 A

12.64 V
0.01472 A

τ t τ t

τ  25 ms

- 40 V

- 0.10528 A

Note: At the switching time, voltage across the capacitor does not have discontinuity i.e.
vC(0.25 X 10-3)- = vC(0.25 X 10-3)+. On the other hand, the current through the capacitor
has discontinuity at the instant of switching. The current just before switching and just
after switching can be calculated by considering the circuit conditions at the respective
20  12.64
time. At time t = (0.25 X 10-3)-, current i =  0.01472 A
500

- 40  12.64
At time t = (0.25 X 10-3)+, current i =   0.10528 A
500
RC Circuit RL Circuit

τ = RC α = 1 / RC τ =L/R α=R/L

Switching at t = 0 vC(0+) = vC(0-) Switching at t = 0 iL(0+) = iL(0-)

With DC, at SS capacitor acts as open circuit With DC, at SS inductor acts as short circuit

vC(0) ≠ 0; vC(  ) = 0; Then iL(0) ≠ 0; iL(  ) = 0; Then

1
 t R
RC 
vC(t) = vC(0) e L
t
iL(t) = iL(0) e
vC(0) = 0; vC(  ) ≠ 0; Then iL(0) = 0; iL(  ) ≠ 0; Then
1
 t R
vC(t) = vC(  ) (1 - e RC
) iL(t) = iL(  ) ( 1 - e

L
t
)

vC(0) ≠ 0; vC(  ) ≠ 0; Then iL(0) ≠ 0; iL(  ) ≠ 0; Then

1
 t R
vC(t) = vC(  ) + [vC(0) - vC(  )] e RC
iL(t) = iL(  ) + [iL(0) - iL(  )] e

L
t

dv C (t) diL (t)

iC(t) = C vL(t) = L
dt dt
7.5 TRANSIENT IN RL CIRCUIT

Now we shall consider RL circuit for the transient analysis. As stated earlier,

1. The current in an inductor cannot have discontinuity at the time when switching
occurs.

2. With dc excitation, at steady state, inductor will act as a short circuit.

Now also we shall end up with first order DE whose solution will be exponential in
nature.

Source free circuit

A circuit that does not contain any source is called a source free circuit. Consider the
circuit shown in Fig. 7.35 (a). Let us assume that the circuit was in steady state
condition with the switch is in position S 1 for a long time. Now the inductor acts as short
E
circuit and it carries a current of .
R
S1 R R 1
vL
S2
E L
L
iL iL

0
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.35 Source free RL circuit.
Suddenly, at time t = 0, the switch is moved to position S 2. The current through the
inductor and the voltage across the inductor are designated as i L and vL respectively.
The current through the inductor will be continuous. Hence
R 1
vL

L
iL
E
iL(0+)= i L(0-) = 0 (7.49)
R

The circuit for time t > 0 is shown above. We are interested in finding the current
through the inductor as a function of time. Later, if required, voltage across the inductor
di
can be calculated from vL = L . The mesh equation for the circuit is
dt

diL diL R
R iL  L 0 (7.50) i.e.  iL  0 (7.51)
dt dt L

We need to solve the above equation with the initial condition

E
iL(0+) = (7.52)
R
The structure of the equation (7.51) is the same as Eq. (7.18). In this case, the time
L E
constant, τ is . The inductor current exponentially decays from the initial value of
R R
to the final value of zero. Thus the solution of equation 7.51 yields

E  RL t
iL(t) = e (7.53)
R

The plot of inductor current is shown in Fig. (a).

iL(t) vL(t)
E
R t

0 -E
t
(a) (b)

It can be seen that the dimension of L / R is time. Dimensionally

L Flux linkage amp. Flux linkage

   sec.
R amp. volt Flux linkage / sec

di E R  RL t R
 t
The voltage across the inductor is: vL(t) = L =L (- )e =-E e L (7.54)
dt R L

The plot of the voltage across the inductor is shown in Fig. (b).
Driven circuit

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 7.37 (a). After the circuit has attained the steady state
with the switch in position S 2, the switch is moved to position S 1 at time t = 0. We like to
find the inductor current for time t > 0.

S1 R R vL

S2
E E
iL L iL
L

0
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.37 Driven RL circuit.

Since the current through the inductor must be continuous

iL(0+) = i L(0-) = 0 (7.55)

The circuit for time t > 0 is shown in Fig. 7.37 (b). The mesh equation is

diL diL R
R iL  L E (7.56) i.e.  iL  E (7.57)
dt dt L

We need to solve the above DE with the initial condition i L(0) = 0

diL R
 iL  E
dt L

R
 t
ics = K e L and i ps = A

Substituting i ps in the DE, we get

R E E
0= A  and hence A 
L L R

This gives, i ps = E / R
R
 t E
L
The total solution is i L(t) = K e +
R

Using the initial condition in the above, we get

E E
0=K+ i.e. K = -
R R

Therefore the inductor current is

R R
E  Lt E E  t
iL(t) = - e + = (1 - e L ) (7.58)
R R R
 E L
Inductor current i L(t) exponentially increases from 0 to with time constant, τ = as
R R
shown in Fig. 7.38 (a).

iL(t)

E vL(t)
R E
E
0.632
R

τ t 0 t
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.38 Plot of iL(t) and vL(t).
Now, the voltage across the inductor is obtained as
R R
di E R  Lt  t
vL(t) = L L e =E e L
(7.59)
dt R L

It can be seen that the voltage vL(t) exponentially decreases from E to zero with the time
L
constant, τ = as shown in Fig. 7.38 (b).
R

It is to be noted that the initial and the final values of the inductor current and the
voltage across it can be readily computed by considering the circuit condition at that
time.
More general case of finding the inductor current

In the previous discussion, it was assumed that the initial inductor current iL(0) = 0.
There may be very many situations wherein initial inductor current is not zero.

The circuit arrangements can cause non-zero initial inductor current. For this purpose
consider the circuit shown below. The switch was in position S 1 for a long time. It is
moved from position S1 to S2 at time t = 0.

R1 S1 S2 R2

t=0
E1 E2
L
 R1 S1 S2 R2

t=0
E1 E2
L

We shall assume the following:

1. At time t = 0- the circuit was at steady state condition with the switch in position S1

2. After switching to position S2, the circuit is allowed to reach the steady state condition

Thus, we are interested about the transient analysis for one switching period only.

Initial inductor current iL(0) is E1 / R1 and the final inductor current iL(  ),will be E2 / R2.

The more general expression for the inductor current can be obtained as

R2
 t
iL(t) = iL(  ) + [iL(0) - iL(  )] e L
(7.63)
Summary of formulae useful for transient analysis on RL circuits

1. Time constant τ =L/R Hence α = R / L

2. When the inductor current is decaying from the initial value of iL(0) to zero
R
iL(t)
 t
iL(t) = iL(0) e L iL(0)

0 t
3. When the inductor current is exponentially increasing from zero to i L(  )
iL(t)
R
 t
iL(t) = iL(  ) ( 1 - e L
) iL(∞)

t
4. When the inductor current changes from iL(0) to iL ()

R
iL(t)

iL(t) = iL(  ) + [iL(0) - iL(  )] e L
t
iL(∞)

Plot of iL(t) depends on values of iL(0) and iL(  )

t
iL(0)
diL (t)
5. Inductor voltage vL(t) = L
dt
Example 7.13 An RL circuit with R = 12 Ω has time constant of 5 ms. Find the value of
the inductance.

Solution R = 12 Ω; Time constant, L / R = 5 X 10 -3 s

Inductance L = 12 X 5 X 10 -3 = 60 mH

Example 7.14

In an RL circuit having time constant 400 ms the inductor current decays and its value
at 500 ms is 0.8 A. Find the equation of i L(t) for t > 0.

R
 t
Solution L / R = 400 X 10-3 s; R / L = 2.5 s-1; As iL(t) decays, iL(t) = i L(0) e L

When t = 500 ms, iL(t) = 0.8 A. Using this

0.8 = i L(0) e- 2.5 X 0.5 = i L(0) e- 1.25 = 0.2865 i L(0)

Thus i L(0) = 0.8 / 0.2865 = 2.7923 A

Therefore iL(t) = 2.7923 e- 2.5 t

Example 7.15 In a RL circuit with time constant of 1.25 s, inductor current increases
from the initial value of zero to the final value of 1.2 A.

(a) Calculate the inductor current at time 0.4 s, 0.8 s and 2 s.

(b) Find the time at which the inductor current reaches 0.3 A, 0.6 A and 0.9 A.

Solution L / R = 1.25 s iL(0) = 0 iL(  ) = 1.2 A α = 1/1.25 = 0.8 s-1

(a) iL(t) = 1.2 (1 - e- 0.8 t) A

When time t = 0.4 s, i L = 1.2(1 - e-0.32) = 0.3286 A

When time t = 0.8 s, i L = 1.2(1 - e-0.64) = 0.5672 A

When time t = 2 s, i L = 1.2(1 - e-1.6) = 0.9577 A

(b) Let t1, t2 and t3 be the time at which current reaches 0.3 A, 0.6 A and 0.9 A.

0.3 = 1.2 (1 - e  0.8 t1 ) i.e. e  0.8 t1 = 0.75 i.e. 0.8 t1 = 0.2877 i.e. t1 = 0.3596 s

0.6 = 1.2 (1 - e  0.8 t 2 ) i.e. e  0.8 t 2 = 0.5 i.e. 0.8 t2 = 0.6931 i.e. t2 = 0.8664 s

0.9 = 1.2 (1 - e  0.8 t 3 ) i.e. e  0.8 t3 = 0.25 i.e. 0.8 t3 = 1.3863 i.e. t3 = 1.7329 s
Example 7.16

In the RL circuit shown in Fig. below, the voltage across the inductor for t > 0 is given
by vL(t) = 0.16 e  200 t V . Determine the value of the inductor L and obtain the equation
for current i L(t). Also compute the value of voltage E.
t=0 0.2 Ω vL

E
L
iL

0
R 0.2
Solution vL(t) = 0.16 e  200 t V ; R = 0.2 Ω α=  200; i.e. L  H  1 mH
L 200

When the switch is closed inductor current exponentially increases from 0 to i L(  ). It is

R R R
 t di R  t  t
iL(t) = i L(  ) ( 1 - e L
) Also vL(t) = L L  L iL () e L  R iL () e L
dt L
R
 t
Comparing vL(t) =  R iL () e L with vL(t) = 0.16 e  200 t V

Therefore, 0.2 i L(  ) = 0.16 i.e. i L(  ) = 0.16 / 0.2 = 0.8 A

 200 t
Thus, iL(t) = 0.8 (1 - e )

E E
Also i L(  ) = Therefore,  0.8; Thus E  0.16 V
0.2 0.2
Example 7.17 The switch in the circuit shown was in open position for a long time. It
is closed at time t = 0. Find i L(t) for time t > 0.

t=0 2Ω

+
24 V 8Ω 0.8 H
- iL

Solution Current i L(0) = 0

When the switch is closed, Current i L(  ) = 24 / 2 = 12 A

Thevenin’s resistance = 8││2 = 1.6 Ω τ = L / R = 0.8 / 1.6 = 0.5 s ; α = 2 s-1

Inductor current exponentially increases from 0 to 12 A.

Current i L(t) = 12 ( 1- e- 2 t) A

Same result can be obtained by getting the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for time t > 0
as shown in Fig. below. 1.6 Ω

+
19.2 V 0.8 H
- iL
Example 7.18 The switch in the circuit shown was in closed position for a long time.
Find current i L(t) for time t > 0.
10 Ω

t=0
+ 0.5 H
20 V
iL
- 8Ω
30 Ω
Solution

Circuit for t = 0- and t =  are shown in Fig. (a) and (b) below.

10 Ω 10 Ω

+ +
20 V iL(0) 20 V
8Ω iL (  )
- -
30 Ω 30 Ω

(a) (b)

Current i L(0) = 20 / 40 = 0.5 A Further, current i L(  ) = 20 / 40 = 0.5 A

R
 t
Therefore, current i L(t) = iL(  ) + [i L(0) - iL(  )] e L
= 0.5 A
Example 7.19 In the circuit shown the switch was in open position for a long time.
Determine the current i L(t) and the voltage vR(t) for time t > 0.
10 Ω 30 Ω

+ vR -
+
iL 2.5 H 20 V
t=0
-
Solution

Circuit for t = 0- and t =  are shown in Fig. (a) and (b) below.

10 Ω 30 Ω 10 Ω 30 Ω

+ vR - + vR -
+ +
20 V 20 V
iL(0) iL (  )
- -

(a) (b)
Current i L(0) = 20 / (10 + 30) = 0.5 A; Current i L(  ) = 0: Thevenin’s resistance = 10 Ω

Time constant = L / R = 2.5 / 10 = 0.25 s; α = 4 s-1

Thus i L(t) = 0.5 e- 4t A Voltage vR(t) = - 10 i L(t) = - 5 e- 4 t V

Example 7.20

The circuit shown was in steady state condition with the switch open. Find the inductor
current for time t > 0. 4Ω 4Ω

t=0
+
8V iL 1.4 H
12 Ω
-
t=0
Solution
4Ω 4Ω
Current i L(0) = 8 / (4 + 4) = 1 A

Circuit for t =  is
+
iT = 8 / 7 = 1.1429 A 8V iL
12 Ω
iL(  ) = (12/16) 1.1429 A -

= 0.8571 A

Thevenin’s resistance wrt inductor = 4 + 3 = 7 Ω

Time constant L / R = 1.4 / 7 = 0.2 s; α = 5 s -1

R
 t
Current i L(t) = iL(  ) + [i L(0) - iL(  )] e L
= 0.8571 + [1 - 0.8571] e- 5 t A

= 0.8571 + 0.1429 e- 5 t A
Example 7.21 With the switch open, the circuit shown below was in steady state
condition. At time t = 0, the switch is closed. Find the inductor current for time t > 0 and
sketch its wave form. t=0

16 Ω 40 Ω
+
12 V 10 Ω iL 8H
-

Solution

Circuit for t = 0- and t =  are shown in Fig. (a) and (b).

16 Ω 40 Ω 40 Ω
+ +
12 V 10 Ω 12 V 10 Ω
iL(0) iL (  )
- -

10
To find iL(0): RT = 16 + 8 = 24 Ω; IT = 12 / 24 = 0.5 A; iL(0) = 0.5 X = 0.1 A
50

To find iL(  ); 12 / 40 = 0.3 A; Further, RTh = 40 Ω

Time constant = L / RTh = 8 / 40 = 0.2 s α = 5 s-1
R
 t
Current i L(t) = iL(  ) + [i L(0) - iL(  )] e L
= 0.3 + [0.1 - 0.3] e- 5 t

= 0.3 - 0.2 e- 5 t A

Current wave form is shown in Fig. 7,51.

iL(t)

0.3 A

0.1 A

0
t
Fig. 7.51 Wave form of iL(t) - Example 7.21.
Example 7.22

For the initially relaxed circuit shown, the switch is closed on to position S 1 at time t = 0
and changed to position S 2 at time t = 0.5 ms. Obtain the equation for inductor current
and voltage across the inductor in both the intervals and sketch the transients.

S1 R vL
E1 = 100 V; E 2 = 50 V
S2
E1 L R = 100 Ω
E2
iL
L = 0.2 H
0
Solution

With the switch is in position S 1, inductor current exponentially increases from zero to
the steady state value of 100 / 100 = 1 A. Knowing the time constant as L / R =

0.2 / 100 = 1 / 500 s, equation of inductor current in the first switching interval is
iL(t) = 1 - e- 500 t A Corresponding voltage is

diL
vL(t) = L = 0.2 X 500 e- 500 t V = 100 e- 500 t V for 0.5 X 10-3 ≥ t > 0
dt

Therefore iL(0.5 X 10-3) = 1 - e- 0.25 = 0.2212 A

vL(0.5 X 10-3) = 100 e- 0.25 = 77.88 V

S1 R vL
Let the second switching occurs at time t’ = 0.
S2
Then, t’ = t - 0.5 X 10 -3 E1
E2 L
iL
For time t’ > 0, the mesh equation is
0
diL diL R E
R iL(t’) + L = - E2 i.e. + iL(t’) = - 2 with i(0) = 0.2212 A
dt' dt' L L
diL R E
+ iL(t’) = - 2 with i(0) = 0.2212 A
dt' L L
R
 t'
L
ics = K e and ips = A

Substituting the particular solution to the non-homogeneous DE, we get

R E E
A = - 2 i.e. A = - 2 = - 0.5
L L R
Complete solution is

iL(t’) = K e- 500 t’ - 0.5

Using the initial condition

K - 0.5 = 0.2212 i.e. K = 0.7212. Thus

iL(t’) = 0.7212 e- 500 t’ - 0.5 A

vL(t’) = 0.2 X (- 0.7212 X 500) e- 500 t’ = - 72.12 e- 500 t’ V

When t’ = 0, inductor voltage = - 72.12 V

The current and voltage transients are shown in Fig. 7.53.

iL(t)

1.0 A
vL(t)

100 V
77.88 V

0.2212 A

0 0 t
tC t tC

- 72.12 V
- 0.5 A

tC = 0.5 ms
Fig. 7.53 Wave forms - Example 7.22.
7.6 LAPLACE TRANSFORM

In circuits with several capacitances and inductors, we often come across with integro-
differential equations. Such equations can be rewritten as higher order DEs. The
classical method of solving the DEs is rather involved. Here, the complimentary solution
and the particular solution have to be determined and finally the arbitrary constants
have to be obtained from the initial conditions. The Laplace Transform (LT) method is
much superior to the classical method due to the following reasons.

1. Laplace transformation transforms exponential and trigonometric functions into

algebraic functions.

2. Laplace transformation transforms differentiation and integration into

multiplication and division respectively.

3. It transforms integro-differential equations into algebraic equations which are

much simpler to handle.

4. The arbitrary constants need not be determined separately. Complete solution

will be obtained directly.



st
The LT of f(t) is defined by F(s) = f(t) e dt (7.65)
0
The following Table 7.1 gives the LT of some important functions used quite often in
transient analysis.
Table 7.1 Laplace transform of certain time functions.
Time function f(t) Laplace transform F(s) Time function f(t) Laplace transform F(s)
u(t) 1 E E
s s

e- a t 1 eat 1
sa sa

sin ωt ω sin (ωt + θ) s sin θ  ω cos θ

s2  ω2 s2  ω2

cos ωt s cos (ωt + θ) s cos θ  ω sinθ

s2  ω2 s2  ω2
d2 f
df s F(s) - f(0 ) +
s2 F(s) - s f(0+} - f’(0+)
dt dt 2


 f(t) dt
F(s)
e- α t f(t) F(s + α)
0 s
f(t - t1) 1
e  t1 s F(s) t
s2
While finding inverse Laplace Transform, in many cases, as a first step, F(s) is to be
split into sum of functions in s. This is done using partial fraction method. The results of
two cases that are used quite often are furnished below.

s2  p s  q K1 K2 K3
1. F(s) = =   (7.66)
(s  a) (s  b) (s  c) sa sb sc

Here K1 = (s + a) F(s) s = - a

K2 = (s + b) F(s) s = - b
(7.67)
K3 = (s + c) F(s) s = - c

A k k A1 A 1 A 1 1
2. F(s) =  1 2    (  )
s (s  B) s s + B B s B s  B B s s  B
7.7 TRANSFORM IMPEDANCE AND TRANSFORM CIRCUIT

When LT method is used for transient analysis, Transform Circuit shall be arrived
first. In the transform circuit, all the currents and voltages are the transformed
quantities of the currents and voltages. Further, all the element parameters are
replaced by their Transform Impedances. Transform impedances of the individual
element shall be arrived at as discussed below.

Resistor

The terminal relationship for the resistor, in time domain is

v(t) = R i(t) (7.68)

Taking LT on both sides, V(s) = R I(s) (7.69)

Fig. below shows the terminal relationships of resistor in time and transform domains.

i(t) R I(s) R

+ v(t) - + V(s) -
Inductor For an inductor, v-i relationships in time domain are
t
di 1
v(t) = L (7.70) i(t) =  v dt  i (0  ) (7.71)
dt L 0

where i(0+) is the current flowing through the inductor at time t = 0+. On taking LT of
these equations, we get

V(s) i (0  )
+
V(s) = L s I(s) - L i(0 ) (7.72) I(s) =  (7.73)
Ls s

Note that above two equations are not different. Fig. below shows the representation of
the terminal relationship of inductor in time and transform domains.
i (0  )
s

L L i(0+)
i(t) I(s) Ls
I(s) Ls
i(0+) - +
+ V(s) -
+ v(t) - + V(s) -

It is to be noted that both the transform domain circuits shown above are equivalent of
each other. One can be obtained from the other using source transformation.
Capacitor For a capacitor, v-i relationships in time domain are
t
dv 1
i(t) = C
dt
(7.74) v(t) = 
C 0
i dt  v (0  ) (7.75)

where v(0+) is the voltage across the capacitor at time t = 0+. On taking LT of these
equations, we get

I(s) v (0  )
+
I(s) = C s V(s) - C v(0 ) (7.76) V(s) =  (7.77)
Cs s

Note that the above two equations are not different. They are written in different form.
Fig. below shows the representation of the terminal relationship of capacitor in the time
and transform domains. C v(0+)

1 v(0  )
C Cs s
i(t) I(s) I(s)

+ v(0+) - 1 + -

+ v(t) - Cs + V(s) -
+ V(s) -

Here again, both the transform domain circuits shown are equivalent of each other. One
can be obtained from the other using source transformation.
Example 7.23 For the circuit shown below, obtain the transform circuit.

C1 R1 R3 L

i0
R2
+ i1 - i2
e(t) e0 C2
- +

Solution Fig. below shows the transform circuit.

1
C1 s Li0
R1 R3 Ls

i0 - +
R2
+ I1(s) 1 I2(s)
E(s) C2 s
-
-
e0
+ s
7.8.1 RL CIRCUIT

Consider the RL circuit shown in Fig. 7.59(a). Assume that the switch is closed at time t
= 0 and assume that the current i at the time of switching is zero.
R R
vL vL
S1
E
E
i L s I(s) Ls

0 0
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.59 Time domain and s domain - R-L circuit.

The transform circuit in s domain is shown in Fig. 7.59 (b). From this,

   
E/s E/L 
E/L  1 
1  
E1 1 
I(s) =    =  (7.78)
R  Ls R/L  s R Rs
s  
R R
s (s  )  s  
L  L  L
R
E  t
Taking inverse LT i(t) = (1  e L ) (7.79)
R

Thus, inductor current rises exponentially with time constant L / R.

Voltage across the inductor is given by

E
V(s) = L s I(s) = (7.80)
R
s
L
R
 t
L
Taking inverse LT vL(t) = E e (7.81)

Inductor voltage increases exponentially with time constant L / R. The current and
voltage transients are shown in Fig. 7.60.
i(t)

E vL(t)
R E

τ t 0 τ t

(a) (b)
Fig. 7.60 Plot of iL(t) and vL(t).
Consider the circuit shown in Fig.(a). Let us say that with the switch in position S 1,
steady state condition is reached. The current flowing through the inductor is E / R. At
time t = 0, the switch is turned to position S2. Then

i(0+) = i(0-) = E / R

The transform circuit for time t > 0 is shown in Fig. (b). R V(s)

S1 R
Ls
S2 I(s)
E -
L
EL
R +
0
(a) (b)

EL E
Considering the transformed circuit I(s) = R  R (7.82)
R  Ls R
s
L
R
E L t
Taking inverse LT i(t) = e (7.83)
R

The current decays exponentially with time constant L / R.

Since R I(s) + V(s) = 0 the voltage across the inductor is

E
V(s) = - R I(s) = - (7.84)
R
s
L
R
 t
L
Taking inverse LT vL(t) = - E e (7.85)

The inductor voltage exponentially changes from - E to zero with time constant L / R.

The current and voltage transients are given by the above two equations are shown.

i(t) vL(t)
E
R
τ
t

0 τ t
-E
Example 7.24 Initially relaxed series RL circuit with R = 100 Ω and L = 20 H has dc
voltage of 200 V applied at time t = 0. Find (a) the equation for current and voltages
across different elements (b) the current at time t = 0.5 s and 1.0 s (c) the time at which
the voltages across the resistor and inductor are equal.

Solution Transform circuit for time t > 0 is shown.

200
s 10 1 1 
(a) I(s) = =  2   
100  20 s s (s  5) s s  5 100
vL
+ vR -
Therefore, current i(t) = 2 (1- e  5 t ) A 200
s 20 s
Voltage vR(t) = R i(t) = 200 (1- e 5t
)V I(s)
0
di
Voltage vL(t) = L  20 X 2 X 5 e  5 t  200 e  5 t V
dt

(b) i(0.5) = 2 (1- e  2.5 ) = 1.8358 A i(1.0) = 2 (1- e  5 ) = 1.9865 A

(c) Let t1 be the time at which vR(t) = vL(t). Then

200 (1- e  5 t1 ) = 200 e  5 t1 i.e. e  5 t1 = 0.5 This gives t1 = 0.1386 s

Example 7.25 For the circuit shown, with zero inductor current the switch is closed on
to position S1 at time t = 0. At one mille second it is moved to position S 2 Obtain the
equation for the currents in both the intervals.
S1 R vL
E1 = 100 V; E2 = 50 V
S2
E1 L R = 50 Ω
E2
iL
L = 0.2 H
0
Solution Transform circuits are shown. R
50 V(s)

50
vL Ls s
0.2
50 I(s)
100
s -
s 0.2 s
I(s) 0.08848
+
0
0
(a) (b)

The transform circuit for the first interval is shown in Fig. 7.65 (a). From this

100
s 500 1 1 
I(s) = =  2   
50  0.2 s s (s  250)  s s  250 

Thus, i(t) = 2 (1- e  250 t ) A i(0.001) = 2 (1- e  0.25 ) = 0.4424 A

At time t = 0.001 s, the switch is moved to position S 2. We shall say that this is done at
time t’ = 0. Thus t’ = 0 implies that t = 0 and hence t’ = t - 0.001.

The transform circuit for time t’ > 0 is shown in Fig. 7.65 (b) in which

L i(0+) = 0.2 X 0.4424 = 0.08848

50
 0.08848
s 50  0.08848 s 250  0.4424 s K 1 K2
Now, I(s) = =   
50  0.2 s s (50  0.2 s) s (s  250) s s  250

250  0.4424 s 250  0.4424 s

K1 =  1 K2 =  - 0.5576
s  250 s=0 s s = - 250

1 0.5576
Thus, I(s) = 
s s  250

Taking inverse LT we get, current i(t’) = 1 - 0.5576 e  250 t'

Thus for the two intervals currents are given by

i(t) = 2 (1- e  250 t ) A 0.001 ≥ t > 0

i(t) = 1 - 0.5576 e  250 (t - 0.001) A t > 0.001

Example 7.26 In the previous example, compute the voltage across the inductor in
both the intervals and sketch the wave form.

Solution In the first interval, i(t) = 2 (1- e  250 t ) A

di
vL(t) = L  0.2 X 2 X 250 e  250 t  100 e  250 t V vL(0.001) = 100 e  0.25  77.88 V
dt

In the second interval, i(t’) = 1 - 0.5576 e  250 t'

di
vL(t’) = L  0.2 X 0.5576 X 250 e  250 t'  27.88 e  250 t'  27.88 e - 250 (t - 0.001) V
dt'

vL(0.001) = vL(t’) t’ = 0 = 27.88 V

The wave form of the voltage across the inductor is shown below.

vL(t)

100 V

77.88 V

27.88 V

0 t
t = 0.001 s
Example 7.27

In the initially relaxed RL circuit shown, the sinusoidal source of e = 100 sin (500 t) V is
applied at time t = 0. Determine the resulting transient current for time t > 0.
5Ω

+
e ~ i 0.01 H
-

Solution

e = 100 sin (500 t) V; Its LT is

100 X 500 5 X 10 4
E(s) = 2 
s  250000 s 2  25 X10 4

Impedance = 5 + j 0.01 s
 5 X 10 4 5 X 10 6
Current I(s) = = 2
(s 2  25 X10 4 ) (5  0.01s) (s  25 X10 4 ) (s  500)

K1 s  K 2 K3
= +
s 2  25 X10 4 s  500

5 X 10 6
K3 = 2 = 10
s  25 X10 4 s = - 500

5 X 10 6 K1 s  K 2 10
Since = +
(s 2  25 X10 4 ) (s  500) s 2  25 X10 4 s  500

5 X 106 = (K1 s + K2) (s + 500) + 10 (s2 + 25 X 104)

= (K1 + 10) s2 + (500 K 1 + K2) s + (500 K 2 + 25 X 105)

Comparing the coefficients, in LHS and RHS

K1 + 10 = 0 i.e. K 1 = - 10

500 K1 + K2 = 0 i.e. K 2 = - 500 K1. Thus K2 = 5000

-10 s 5000 10
Therefore, I(s) = [ + 2 + ]
s  25 X10
2 4
s  25 X10 4
s  500

On taking inverse LT, we get i(t) = 10 [- cos 500 t + sin 500 t + e  500 t ] A

= 14.14 sin (500 t - 450) + 10 e  500 t A

7.8.2 RC CIRCUIT Consider the RC circuit shown in Fig. 7.68 (a). Assume that the
switch is closed at time t = 0 and assume that the voltage across the capacitor at the
time of switching is zero.
R R
vC VC(s)
S1
E 1
E
i C s I(s) Cs

0 0
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.68 Time domain and s domain - RC circuit.

The transform circuit for time t > 0 is shown in Fig. 7.68 (b). From this

E/s EC E/R
I(s) =   (7.85)
1 RC s  1 1
R s
Cs RC

1
E  RC t
Taking inverse LT i(t) = e (7.86)
R

 
 
 E   (7.87)
1 E /RC 1 1
Voltage across the capacitor is VC(s) = I(s) 
Cs 1  s 1 
s (s  )  s  
RC  RC 
  
 
 E   (7.87)
1 E /RC 1 1
Voltage across the capacitor is VC(s) = I(s) 
Cs 1 s 1 
s (s  )  s  
RC  RC 

Taking inverse LT, we get the capacitor voltage as

1
 t
RC
vC(t) = E (1 - e ) (7.88)

The circuit current and the voltage across the capacitor vary as shown in Fig. below.
i(t) vC(t)
E
E
R

0 t t
(a) (b)
Now, consider the circuit shown in Fig. (a).The switch was in position S1 for sufficiently
long time to establish steady state condition. At time t = 0, it is moved to position S 2.

Before the switch is moved to position S2, the capacitor gets charged to voltage E.
Since the voltage across the capacitor maintains continuity,
R V(s)
vC(0+) = vC(0-) = E
S1 R
1
S2 Cs
I(s)
E +
C E
s -
0
(a) (b)

The transform circuit for time t > 0 is shown in Fig. (b). From this

E/s EC E/R
I(s) = -   (7.89)
1 RC s  1 1
R s
Cs RC

1
E  RC t
Taking inverse LT i(t) = - e (7.90)
R
It is to be seen that R I(s) + VC(s) = 0

E
Thus VC(s) = - R I(s) = (7.91)
1
s
RC
1
 t
RC
Taking inverse LT vC(t) = E e (7.92)

The wave form of circuit current and the capacitor voltage are shown in Fig. 7.71.

i(t) vC(t)

0
t E

E

R
0 t

(a) (b)

Fig. 7.71 Plot of i(t) and vC(t) as given by Eq. (7.90) and (7.92).
Example 7.28 In the RC circuit shown below, the capacitor has an initial charge q 0 =
2500 µC. At time t = 0, the switch is closed. Find the circuit current for time t > 0.
10 Ω
vC
S1
i -
100 V 50 µF q0
+
0
Solution

q0 2500 X 10 6
vC(0) = -    50 V
C 50 X 10 6
R
10 V(s)
Transform circuit for time t > 0 is shown in Fig. 7.73.

Referring to Fig. 7.73, I(s)

106 / 50 s
100
100 50 s -

s s  150 15 50 / s
I(s) = 
20000 10 s  20000 s  2000 +
10 
s 0

Taking inverse LT, current i(t) = 15 e  2000 t A Fig. 7.73 Circuit - Example 7.28.
Example 7.29 For the circuit shown below, find the transient current, assuming that
the initial charge on the capacitor as zero, when the switch is closed at time t = 0.

100 Ω
vC
+ S1
i
(200 sin 500 t) V ~ 25 µF
-

200 X 500 1 10 6
Solution E(s) = 2 ; 
s  250000 C s 25 s

10 5
s 2  250000 10 5 s
Therefore, I(s) =  2
4 X 10 4 (s  250000)(100 s  4 X 10 4 )
100 
s

1000 s K1 s  K 2 K3
= = +
(s 2  250000)( s  400) s 2  250000 s  400
 1000 s
K3 = = - 0.9756
s 2  250000
s = - 400
Further, 1000 s = (K1 s + K2) (s + 400) - 0.9756 (s2 + 250000)

= (K1 - 0.9756) s2 + (400 K1 + K2) s + (400 K2 - 0.9756 X 250000)

Comparing the coefficients, in LHS and RHS we have

K1 - 0.9756 = 0 and 400 K1 + K2 = 1000

On solving, K1 = 0.9756; K2 = 609.76

0.9756 s 609.76 0.9756

Thus, I(s) = + -
s 2  250000 s 2  250000 s  400

s 500 0.9756
= 0.9756  1.2195 
s 2  5002 s 2  5002 s  400

Taking inverse LT i(t) = 0.9756 cos 500 t + 1.2195 sin 500 t - 0.9756 e  400 t A

Knowing that (0.9756)2  (1.2195)2  1.5617 and tan-1 (0.9756 / 1.2195) = 38.660

current i(t) = 1.5617 sin (500 t + 38.660) - 0.9756 e  400 t A

7.8.3 RLC CIRCUIT

Consider the RLC series circuit shown in Fig. 7.75 (a). Assume that there is no initial
charge on the capacitor and there is no initial current through the inductor. The switch is
closed at time t = 0. Transform circuit for time t > 0 is shown in Fig. 7.75 (b).
R L R Ls

i E I(s) 1
E
C s Cs

(a) (b)
Fig. 7.75 Time domain and s domain - RLC circuit.

Using the transform circuit, expression for the current is obtained as

E/s EC E/L
I(s) =   (7.93)
1 R C s  L C s2  1 R 1
R  Ls  s2  s 
Cs L LC

The roots of the denominator polynomial are

R R 1
s1, s2 = -  ( )2  αβ (7.94)
2L 2L LC

R R 1
where α = - and β  ( )2  (7.95)
2L 2L LC
 R 2 1 R 2 1 R 2 1
Depending on whether ( ) > , ( ) = or ( ) < the discriminant
2L LC 2L LC 2L LC
value will be positive, zero or negative and three different cases of solutions are
possible.

The value of R, for which the discriminant is zero, is called the critical resistance, R C.

2
RC 1
Then  ;
4 L2 LC

L
Thus R C  2 (7.96)
C

R 2 1
If the circuit resistance R > RC, then ( ) > .
2L LC

R 2 1
If the circuit resistance R < RC, then ( ) < .
2L LC
Case 1

R 2 1
( ) > i.e. R > RC (7.97)
2L LC

The two roots s1 and s2 are real and distinct. s1 = α + β and s2 = α - β (7.98)

K1 K2
Then, I(s) =  (7.99)
s  (α  β) s  (α  β)

Taking inverse LT, we get

i(t) = K1 e (α  β) t + K2 e (α  β) t = e α t [ K 1 e β t  K 2 e  β t ] (7.100)

Its plot is shown in Fig. 7.76. In this case the current is said to be over-damped.
i(t)

0
t
Fig. 7.76 RLC circuit over-damped response.
Case 2

R 2 1
( ) = i.e. R = RC (7.101)
2L LC

Then, β = 0 and hence the roots are s1 = s2 = α (7.102)

E/L K
Thus, I(s) =  (7.103)
(s  α) 2
(s  α)2

Taking inverse LT, we get i(t) = K t e α t (7.104)

The plot of this current transient is shown in Fig. 7.77. In this case, the current is said to
be critically damped.
i(t)

0
t
Fig. 7.77 RLC circuit critically-damped response.
 R 2 1
Case 3 ( ) < i.e. R < RC (7.105)
2L LC

For this case, the roots are complex conjugate, s1 = α + j β and s2 = α - j β (7.106)

E/L E/L E β
Then, I(s) = = = (7.107)
(s  α  j β) (s - α  j β) (s  α ) 2  β 2 L β (s  α)2  β 2

β
= A (7.108)
(s  α)2  β 2

Taking inverse LT, we get i(t) = A e α t sinβ t (7.109)

As seen in Equation 7.95, α will be a negative number. Thus, for this under damped
case, the current is oscillatory and at the same time it decays.

i(t)

Waveform shown is a
exponentially decaying
sinusoidal wave t
Example 7.30 For the RLC circuit shown, find the expression for the transient current
when the switch is closed at time t = 0. Assume initially relaxed circuit conditions.

100 Ω 0.1 H

i
200 V
100 µF

Solution The transform circuit is shown in Fig. 7.80.

100 0.1 s

200 I(s)
10000
s
s

Fig. 7.80 Transform circuit - Example 7.30.

200 / s 200 2000

Current I(s) =  
10000 0.1s 2  100 s  10000 s 2  1000 s  100000
100  0.1s 
s
 200 / s 200 2000
Current I(s) =  
10000 0.1s 2  100 s  10000 s 2  1000 s  100000
100  0.1s 
s

The roots of the denominator polynomial are

 103  10 6  0.4 X 10 6
s1, s2 =   1127 and  887.3
2

2000 K1 K2
Therefore, I(s) =  
(s  1127) (s  887.3) s  1127 s  887.3

2000
K1 = = 2.582
s  887.3 s = - 112.7

2000
K2 = = - 2.582
s  112.7 s = - 887.3

1 1
Thus, I(s) = 2.582 [  ]
s  112.7 s  887.3

Taking inverse LT, we get current i(t) = 2.582 ( e 112.7 t  e  887.3 t ) A

This is an example for over-damped.

Example 7.31 Taking the initial conditions as zero, find the transient current in the
circuit shown in Fig. 7.81 when the switch is closed at time t = 0.

5Ω 0.1 H

i
100 V
500 µF

Fig. 7.81 Circuit for Example 7.31.

Solution The transform circuit is shown in Fig. 7.82.

5 0.1 s

100 I(s) 10 6
s
500 s

Fig. 7.82 Transform circuit - Example 7.31.

100 / s 100 1000

Current I(s) =  
10 6 0.1s 2  5 s  2000 s 2  50 s  20000
5  0.1s 
500 s
 100 / s 100 1000
Current I(s) =  
10 6 0.1s 2  5 s  2000 s 2  50 s  20000
5  0.1s 
500 s

The roots of the denominator polynomial are

 50  2500  80000
s1, s2 =   25  j139.1941
2

It can be seen that

s2 + 50 s + 20000 = (s + 25)2 + (139.1941)2

100 0 139.1941
Thus, I(s) =  7.1842
(s  25)2  (139.1941)2 (s  25)2  (139.1941)2

Taking inverse LT, we get i(t) = 7.1842 e  25 t sin(139.1941 t) A

This is an example for under-damped.

 SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CIRCUIT THEORY – SEEA1201

UNIT-V- RESONANCE AND COUPLED CIRCUITS
In the last lesson, the following points were described:

1. How to compute the total impedance in parallel and series-parallel circuits?

2. How to solve for the current(s) in parallel and series-parallel circuits, fed from single
phase ac supply, and then draw complete phasor diagram?
3. How to find the power consumed in the circuits and also the different components,
and the power factor (lag/lead)?
In this lesson, the phenomenon of the resonance in series and parallel circuits, fed
from single phase variable frequency supply, is presented. Firstly, the conditions
necessary for resonance in the above circuits are derived. Then, the terms, such as
bandwidth and half power frequency, are described in detail. Some examples of the
resonance conditions in series and parallel circuits are presented in detail, along with the
respective phasor diagrams.
Keywords: Resonance, bandwidth, half power frequency, series and parallel circuits,
After going through this lesson, the students will be able to answer the following
questions;
1. How to derive the conditions for resonance in the series and parallel circuits, fed from
a single phase variable frequency supply?
2. How to compute the bandwidth and half power frequency, including power and
power factor under resonance condition, of the above circuits?
3. How to draw the complete phasor diagram under the resonance condition of the
above circuits, showing the currents and voltage drops in the different components?

Resonance in Series and Parallel Circuits

Series circuit
I R D L
A
E
+

V
C
-
frequency
(f)
B
Fig. 17.1 (a) Circuit diagram.

The circuit, with resistance R, inductance L, and a capacitor, C in series (Fig. 17.1a) is
connected to a single phase variable frequency ( f ) supply.
The total impedance of the circuit is

Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur

 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Z ∠φ = R + j ⎜⎜ ω L − ⎟
⎝ ω C ⎟⎠
where,

⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
2
(ω L − 1 / ω C )
Z = ⎢ R + ⎜⎜ ω L −
2
⎟⎟ ⎥ ; φ = tan −1 ; ω = 2π f
⎢⎣ ⎝ ω C ⎠ ⎥⎦ R

The current is
V ∠ 0°
I ∠ −φ = = (V / Z ) ∠ − φ
Z ∠φ
V
where I =
[R ]
1
+ (ω L − (1 / ω C )
2 2 2

1
The current in the circuit is maximum, if ω L = .
ωC
The frequency under the above condition is
ωo 1
fo = =
2π 2π L C

This condition under the magnitude of the current is maximum, or the magnitude of
the impedance is minimum, is called resonance. The frequency under this condition with
the constant values of inductance L, and capacitance C, is called resonant frequency. If
the capacitance is variable, and the frequency, f is kept constant, the value of the
capacitance needed to produce this condition is
1 1
C= 2 =
ω L (2 π f ) 2 L
The magnitude of the impedance under the above condition is Z = R , with the
reactance X = 0 , as the inductive reactance X l = ω L is equal to capacitive reactance
X C = 1 / ω C . The phase angle is φ = 0° , and the power factor is unity ( cos φ = 1 ), which
means that the current is in phase with the input (supply) voltage.. So, the magnitude of
the current ( (V / R) ) in the circuit is only limited by resistance, R. The phasor diagram
is shown in Fig. 17.1b.
The magnitude of the voltage drop in the inductance L/capacitance C (both are equal,
as the reactance are equal) is I ⋅ ω o L = I ⋅ (1 / ω o C ) .
The magnification of the voltage drop as a ratio of the input (supply) voltage is
ω L 2π f o L 1 L
Q= o = =
R R R C

Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur

 + E

I ( j.X L )

I ( -j X C )

A
I VAD , VAB ( I.R )
-
Fig. 17.1 (b) Phasor Diagram

It is termed as Quality (Q) factor of the coil.

The impedance of the circuit with the constant values of inductance L, and capa-
citance C is minimum at resonant frequency ( f o ), and increases as the frequency is
changed, i.e. increased or decreased, from the above frequency. The current is maximum
at f = f o , and decreases as frequency is changed ( f > f o , or f < f o ), i.e. f ≠ f o . The
variation of current in the circuit having a known value of capacitance with a variable
frequency supply is shown in Fig. 17.2.

Im = V/ R
Current (I)

small R
Current

large R

Im 1 V
= .
2 2 R

f1 f0 f2
frequency (f) frequency

(a) (b)

Fig. 17.2 Variation of current under variable frequency supply

The maximum value of the current is ( V / R ). If the magnitude of the current is
reduced to ( 1 / 2 ) of its maximum value, the power consumed in R will be half of that
with the maximum current, as power is I 2 R . So, these points are termed as half power

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points. If the two frequencies are taken as f1 and f 2 , where f 1 = f 0 − Δf / 2 and
f 2 = f 0 + Δf / 2 , the band width being given by Δf = f 2 − f1 .
The magnitude of the impedance with the two frequencies is
1
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤2
2

Z = ⎢ R + ⎜⎜ 2 π ( f 0 ± Δf / 2) L −
2
⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 π ( f 0 ± Δf / 2) C ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎦
As ( 2 π f 0 L = 1 / 2 π f 0 C ) and the ratio ( Δf / 2 f 0 ) is small, the magnitude of the
reactance of the circuit at these frequencies is X = X L 0 (Δf / f 0 ) . As the current is
( 1 / 2 ) of its maximum value, the magnitude of the impedance is ( 2 ) of its minimum
value (R) at resonant frequency.
[ ]
1
So, Z = 2 ⋅ R = R 2 + ( X L 0 (Δf / f 0 ) ) 2
2

From the above, it can be obtained that (Δf / f 0 )X L 0 = R

R f0 R f0 R
or Δf = f 2 − f1 = = =
X L0 2π f 0 L 2π L
The band width is given by Δf = f 2 − f1 = R /(2 π L)
It can be observed that, to improve the quality factor (Q) of a coil, it must be designed
to have its resistance, R as low as possible. This also results in reduction of band width
and losses (for same value of current). But if the resistance, R cannot be decreased, then
Q will decrease, and also both band width and losses will increase.

Example 17.1
A constant voltage of frequency, 1 MHz is applied to a lossy inductor (r in series with
L), in series with a variable capacitor, C (Fig. 17.3). The current drawn is maximum,
when C = 400 pF; while current is reduced to ( 1 / 2 ) of the above value, when C = 450
pF. Find the values of r and L. Calculate also the quality factor of the coil, and the
bandwidth.
R L

V
C
-
f = 1 MHz
Fig. 17.3 Circuit diagram

Solution
f = 1 MHz = 10 6 Hz ω = 2π f C = 400 pF = 400 ⋅ 10 −12 F

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 1 1
I max = V / r as X L = X C Xc = = = 398 Ω
2 π f C 2 π ⋅10 × 400 ⋅10 −12
6

398.0
X L = X C = 2 π f L = 398 Ω L= = 63.34 μH
2 π ⋅ 10 6
1
C1 = 450 pF X C1 == = 353.7 Ω
2 π ⋅ 10 × 450 ⋅ 10 −12
6

Z ∠φ = r + j ( X L − X C1 ) = r + j (398.0 − 353.7) = (r + j 44.3) Ω

I max V V V
I= = = =
2 2 ⋅r Z r 2 + (44.3) 2
From above, 2 ⋅ r = r 2 + ( 44.3) 2 or 2r 2 = r 2 + (44.3) 2
or r = 44.3 Ω
X L 398.0
The quality factor of the coil is Q = = = 8.984
r 44.3
The band with is
r 44.3 44.3
Δf = f 2 − f1 = = = = 0.1113 ⋅ 106 = 0.1113 MHz
2π L 2π × 63.34 ⋅ 10 −6
398 ⋅ 10 −6

= 111.3 ⋅ 10 = 111.3 kHz

3

Parallel circuit
The circuit, with resistance R, inductance L, and a capacitor, C in parallel (Fig. 17.4a)
is connected to a single phase variable frequency ( f ) supply.
The total admittance of the circuit is

I
O
+ IL Ic

V R L
IR C
-
frequency
(f) B

Fig. 17.4 (a) Circuit diagram.

1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Y ∠φ = + j ⎜⎜ ω C − ⎟⎟
R ⎝ ω L ⎠
where,

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 ⎡ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
2
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
Y = ⎢ 2 + ⎜⎜ ω C − ⎟⎟ ⎥ ; φ = tan −1 ⎢ R ⎜⎜ ω C − ⎟⎟⎥ ; ω = 2π f
⎢⎣ R ⎝ ω L ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎝ ω L ⎠⎦
The impedance is Z ∠ − φ = 1 / Y ∠φ
The current is
I ∠φ = V ∠0° ⋅ Y ∠φ = (V ⋅ Y ) ∠φ = V ∠0° / Z ∠ − φ = (V / Z ) ∠φ
⎡ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
2

where, I = V ⎢ 2 + ⎜⎜ ω C − ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ R ⎝ ω L ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
1
The current in the circuit is minimum, if ω C =
ωL
The frequency under the above condition is
ω 1
fo = o =
2π 2π L C

+
I = IR ( V R )
O
V

IC ( V/(-jXC ) )

- I L (V /(jX L ))

Fig. 17.4 (b) Phasor Diagram

This condition under which the magnitude of the total (supply) current is minimum,
or the magnitude of the admittance is minimum (which means that the impedance is
maximum), is called resonance. It may be noted that, for parallel circuit, the current or
admittance is minimum (the impedance being maximum), while for series circuit, the
current is maximum (the impedance being minimum). The frequency under this condition
with the constant values of inductance L, and capacitance C, is called resonant frequency.
If the capacitance is variable, and the frequency, f is kept constant, the value of the
capacitance needed to produce this condition is
1 1
C= 2 =
ω L (2 π f ) 2 L
The magnitude of the impedance under the above condition is ( Z = R ), while the
magnitude of the admittance is ( Y = G = (1 / R) ). The reactive part of the admittance is

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 B = 0 , as the susceptance (inductive) BL = (1 / ω L) is equal to the susceptance
(capacitive) BC = ω C . The phase angle is φ = 0° , and the power factor is unity
( cos φ = 1 ). The total (supply) current is phase with the input voltage. So, the magnitude
of the total current ( (V / R) ) in the circuit is only limited by resistance R. The phasor
diagram is shown in Fig. 17.4b.
The magnitude of the current in the inductance, L / capacitance, C (both are equal, as
the reactance are equal), is V (1 / ω o L) = V ⋅ ω o C . This may be termed as the circulating
current in the circuit with only inductance and capacitance, the magnitude of which is
C
I L = IC = V
L
substituting the value of ω o = 2 π f o . This circulating current is smaller in magnitude
than the input current or the current in the resistance as ω o C = (1 / ω o L) > R .
The input current increases as the frequency is changed, i.e. increased or decreased
from the resonant frequency ( f > f o , or f < f o ), i.e. f ≠ f o .
In the two cases of series and parallel circuits described earlier, all components,
including the inductance, are assumed to be ideal, which means that the inductance is
lossless, having no resistance. But, in actual case, specially with an iron-cored choke coil,
normally a resistance r is assumed to be in series with the inductance L, to take care of
the winding resistance and also the iron loss in the core. In an air-cored coil, the winding
resistance may be small and no loss occurs in the air core.
An iron-cored choke coil is connected in parallel to capacitance, and the combination
is fed to an ac supply (Fig. 17.5a).

+ R IC
IL C
-
L

Fig. 17.5 (a) Circuit diagram.

The total admittance of the circuit is

1 r − jω L
Y = Y1 + Y2 = + jω C = 2 + jω C
r + jω L r + ω 2 L2
If the magnitude of the admittance is to be minimum, then
ωL L
ωC = 2 or C = 2 .
r +ω L2 2
r + ω 2 L2

The frequency is

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 ωo 1 L
fo = = − r2
2π 2π C
r
This is the resonant frequency. The total admittance is Y ∠0° =
r + ω 2 L2
2

r 2 + ω 2 L2
The total impedance is Z ∠0° =
r
The total (input) current is
V ∠0° ⎛V ⎞ V ⋅r
I ∠0° = = V ∠0° ⋅ Y ∠0° = ⎜ ⎟ ∠0° = (V ⋅ Y ) ∠0° = 2
Z ∠0° ⎝Z⎠ r + ω 2 L2
This current is at unity power factor with φ = 0° . The total current can be written as
I ∠0° = I + j 0 = I L ∠ − φ L + j I C = I L cos φ L + j (I L sin φ L − I C )
So, the condition is I C = I L sin φ l
V V ωL
where I C = = V ⋅ω C ; I L = ; sin φ L =
XC r +ω L
2 2 2
r + ω 2 L2
2

From the above, the condition, as given earlier, can be obtained.

The total current is I = I L cos φ L
The value, as given here, can be easily obtained. The phasor diagram is shown in Fig.
17.5b. It may also be noted that the magnitude of the total current is minimum, while the
magnitude of the impedance is maximum.
I D V
A
ΦL

IC
IL
B

Fig. 17.5 (b) Phasor Diagram

Example 17.2
A coil, having a resistance of 15 Ω and an inductance of 0.75 H, is connected in
series with a capacitor (Fig. 17.6a. The circuit draws maximum current, when a voltage
of 200 V at 50 Hz is applied. A second capacitor is then connected in parallel to the
circuit (Fig. 17.6b). What should be its value, such that the combination acts like a non-
inductive resistance, with the same voltage (200 V) at 100 Hz? Calculate also the current
drawn by the two circuits.

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 R L R L
I
•
+ + I1
I2
V = 200 V V = 200 V C2
C1 C1
- -
•
f1 = 50Hz f2 = 100Hz

Fig. 17.6 (a) Circuit diagram Fig. 17.6 (b) Circuit diagram

Solution
f1 = 50 Hz V = 200 V R = 15 Ω L = 0.75 H
From the condition of resonance at 50 Hz in the series circuit,
1 1
X L1 = ω1 L = 2 π f1 L = X C1 = =
ω1C1 2 π f1 C1
1 1
So, C1 = = = 13.5 ⋅ 10 −6 = 13.5 μF
(2 π f1 ) L (2 π ⋅ 50) × 0.75
2 2

The maximum current drawn from the supply is, I max = V / R = 200 / 15 = 13.33 A
f 2 = 100 Hz ω 2 = 2 π f 2 = 2 π ⋅ 100 = 628.3 rad / s
X L 2 = 2 π f 2 L = 2 π ⋅ 100 ⋅ 0.75 = 471.24 Ω
1 1
X C2 = = = 117.8. Ω
2 π f 2 C1 2 π ⋅ 100 ⋅ 13.5 ⋅ 10 −6
Z 1 ∠φ1 = R + j ( X L 2 − X C 2 ) = 15 + j (471.24 − 117.8) = 15 + j 353.44
= 353.75 ∠87.57° Ω
1 1 1
Y1 ∠ − φ1 = = = = 2.827 ⋅ 10 −3 ∠ − 87.57°
Z 1 ∠φ1 15 + j 353.44 353.75 ∠87.57°
= (0.12 − j 2.824) ⋅ 10 −3 Ω −1
Y2 = 1 / Z 2 = j (ω 2 C 2 )

As the combination is resistive in nature, the total admittance is

Y ∠0° = Y + j 0 = Y1 + Y2 = (0.12 − j 2.824) ⋅ 10 −3 + j ω 2 C 2
From the above expression, ω 2 C 2 = 628.3 ⋅ C 2 = 2.824 ⋅ 10 −3
2.824 ⋅ 10 −3
or, C 2 = = 4.5 ⋅ 10 −6 = 4.5 μF
628.3
The total admittance is Y = 0.12 ⋅ 10 −3 Ω −1
( )
The total impedance is Z = 1 / Y = 1 / 0.12 ⋅ 10 −3 = 8.33 ⋅ 10 3 Ω = 8.33 kΩ
The total current drawn from the supply is

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 I = V ⋅ Y = V / Z = 200 × 0.12 ⋅ 10 −3 = 0.024 A = 24 ⋅ 10 −3 = 24 mA
The phasor diagram for the circuit (Fig. 17.6b) is shown in Fig. 17.6c.

I V

I2
φ1 = 87.6°

I1

Fig. 17.6 (c) Phasor diagram

The condition for resonance in both series and parallel circuits fed from single phase
ac supply is described. It is shown that the current drawn from the supply is at unity
power factor (upf) in both cases. The value of the capacitor needed for resonant condition
with a constant frequency supply, and the resonant frequency with constant value of
capacitance, have been derived. Also taken up is the case of a lossy inductance coil in
parallel with a capacitor under variable frequency supply, where the total current will be
at upf. The quality factor of the coil and the bandwidth of the series circuit with known
value of capacitance have been determined. This is the final lesson in this module of
single phase ac circuits. In the next module, the circuits fed from three phase ac supply
will be described.

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Problems
17.1 A coil having a resistance of 20 Ω and inductance of 20 mH, in series with a
capacitor is fed from a constant voltage variable frequency supply. The maximum
current is 10 A at 100 Hz. Find the two cut-off frequencies, when the current is
0.71 A.

17.2 With the ac voltage source in the circuit shown in Fig. 17.7 operating a frequency
of f, it was found that I =1.0 ∠0° A. When the source frequency was doubled (2f),
the current became I = 0.707 ∠ – 45° A. Find:
a) The frequency f, and
b) The inductance L, and also the reactances, XL and XC at 2f

17.3 For the circuit shown in Fig. 17.8,

a) Find the resonant frequency f0, if R = 250 Ω, and also calculate Q0 (quality
factor), BW (band width) in Hz, and lower and upper cut-off frequencies (f1 and
f2) of the circuit.
b) Suppose it was desired to increase the selectivity, so that BW was 65 Hz. What
value of R would accomplish this?

R = 100 Ω L

100 ∠0° V
C = 0.01 μF
-

Fig. 17.7

Inductor
R coil

RO = 150 Ω L = 1.2 H
+
VO
RL = 200 Ω
-

C = 0.33 μF

Fig. 17.8

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17.4 (a) For the circuit shown in Fig. 17.9, show that the circulating current is given by
V.. C L , if R is small and V is the input voltage.
(b) Find the total current at
(i) resonant frequency, f0, and
(ii) at a frequency, f1 = 0.9 f0.

17.5 The circuit components of a parallel circuit shown in Fig. 17.10 are R = 60 kΩ, L
= 5mH, and C = 50 pF. Find
a) the resonant frequency, f0,
b) the quality factor, Q0, and
c) the bandwidth.

I
I • •
•
+ R +
V
L V R
- L
C
• -
Fig. 17.9 • •
Fig. 17.10

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List of Figures
Fig. 17.1 (a) Circuit diagram (R-L-C in series)
(b) Phasor diagram
Fig. 17.2 Variation of current under variable frequency supply
Fig. 17.3 Circuit diagram (Ex. 17.1)
Fig. 17.4 (a) Circuit diagram (R-L-C in parallel)
(b) Phasor diagram
Fig. 17.5 (a) Circuit diagram
(b) Phasor diagram
Fig. 17.6 (a) Circuit diagram (Ex. 17.2),
(b) Circuit diagram,
(c) Phasor diagram

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