BTEC Applied Science

Unit 1 Revision Guide

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STARTED

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How to use this guide EXAM DATE:
Monday 5th June 2016,
9:00am, 1h 30m

This revision guide is divided into 3 sections; Biology, Chemistry and Physics. The contents page will take you
to your chosen topic. To return to the contents page simply click the ‘home’ icon on the bottom right of the
page.

When you have completed your revision for a topic, use the ‘secure, unsure, weak’ checkbox in
the top right hand corner to record your progress. This will allow you to return to topics which
need extra work.

Each revision page has some possible exam questions listed. When you have revised a topic you should complete these
questions. Remember, practice makes perfect!

This guide is designed to help with your revision, it is not meant to replace your notes!

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 B P
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF Revised Revised
WAVES IN COMMUNICATION
CELLS AND TISSUE Y/N

Cell theory 4 Waves 66

Microscopy 6
C Transverse and longi- 68
tudinal
Animal cells 8
Diffraction gratings 70-72
Revised
Plant cells 10 PERIODICITY AND PROPERTIES OF
ELEMENTS Y/N Stationary waves reso- 74
Bacteria cells 12 nance
Electronic structure 32
Principles of fibre op- 76
Gram staining 14
Ionic bonding 34 tics
Specialised cells 16-18
Covalent bonding 36 Optical fibres 78-80
Epithelial tissue 20
Metallic bonding 38 Electromagnetic waves 82
Muscle tissue 22-24
Intermolecular forces 40
Nervous tissue 26-30
Quantises used in 42-50
chemistry
Keep track of your revision
The Periodic table 52 by marking off topics you
have covered and high-
If using this document on a lighting ones you have yet to
computer, click the page Physical properties of 54-60
revise.
number to ring you to your elements
chosen topic.
Chemical properties of 62-64
elements

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B CELL THEORY
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The cell is the fundamental unit of life. All organisms, whatever their type or size, are composed of cells. The modern theory of cellular organisation states:-
•All living things are composed of cells and cell products.
•New cells are formed only by the division of pre-existing cells
•The cell contains inherited information (genes), which is used as instructions for growth, functioning and development.
•The cell is the functioning unit of life; the metabolic reactions of life take place within the cells.

Eukaryotic Prokaryotic MY NOTES:

Eukaryotic cells make up multi- Prokaryotic cells are single-

cellular organisms such as celled organisms. They are sim-
plants and animals. They are ple structures and do not have
Robert Hooke
complex cells with a nucleus a nucleus or any membrane-
and membrane-bound orga- bound organelles.
nelles.

Plants and animals Bacteria

1. Outline the similarities and differences

1831: 1852:
between eukaryotic and prokaryotic
Nucleus observed Evidence for the origin of new cells
cells.
1665:
Robert Brown an Robert Remak observed cell division in 2. Briefly outline how cell theory has de-
Robert Hooke English botanist was animal cells. His findings were not accepted
first described the first to observe and at the time, but in 1855 Rudolf Virchow veloped over the past 400 years.
cells describe the nucleus in published the findings as his own to show
a plant cell. new cells form from existing ones.

1674–1683: 1860:
1674–1683:
The first living cell was Spontaneous generation disproved
Universal cell theory
observed
Louis Pasteur demonstrated that
Matthias Schleiden suggested that all plant
Anton van Leeuwenhoek bacteria will only grow in sterile
material is composed of cells. Jan Purkyne
was the first person to nutrient broth after it has been ex-
observed that animal tissue is composed of cells
observe bacteria and posed to air. This disproved the theory
and the structure is similar to plant tissue. The
protoctista from pond of spontaneous generation of cells.
scientist credited for the Universal Cell Theory is
water samples, after
Theodor Schwann, a German physiologist. He
developing powerful glass
proposed that ‘all living things are composed of
lenses.
cells.

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B MICROSCOPY
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Light Microscopy Electron Microscopy
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Light microscopes use visible They use a beam of electrons in WEAK
light and magnifying lenses to a vacuum with a wavelength of
observe small objects. less than 1 nm to visualise the
specimen.
Positive: can observe sub- Positive: x500000 magnifica-
cellular structures. tion, high resolution (0.1nm)
electron micrographs produced
Limitations: lower magnifica- Limitations: destroys the sam-
tion (x500) and resolution ple
(x200nm)

We can use the equation below to

calculate magnification:
Magnification = Size of Image (I) ÷
Actual Size (A)

1. The actual length of the mitochondrion

in the animal cell is 10.0 μm. Calculate
the magnification of the nucleus in the
image to the left.

2. A microbiologist measures an electron

micrograph image of a bacterium to be
4.5 cm in length. The magnification used
to view the bacterium was 22 500x.
Calculate the actual size of the bacte-
rium.
Show all of your
working out in the
exam, it is a good idea
to draw the I AM
triangle and complete
it with figures.

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B ANIMAL CELLS
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One of the key functions of a cell is to synthesise proteins for use inside the cell, to lead
to cell multiplication and for secretion out of the cell for example, insulin.
 Proteins are synthesised on ribosomes attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum.
 The newly synthesised proteins are transported through the cisternae of the
rough ER and packaged into vesicles.
 They are transported to the Golgi apparatus, where vesicles fuse with the sur-
face of the Golgi apparatus and the proteins enter.
 It is here that the newly synthesised proteins are modified and then packaged
into vesicles. Secretory vesicles will transport proteins that are to be released
from the cell to the cell surface membrane.
 They will fuse with the membrane and release the protein by exocytosis.

1. State two functions of the Golgi appa-

ratus.

2. Draw from memory a labelled diagram

of an animal cell.

3. Outline the functions of each cell com-

ponent.

Make sure you can link

the structure of a cell
organelle with its
function.

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B PLANT CELLS
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MY NOTES:

1. Name an organelle found in a plant cell

that is not present in this animal cell.

2. Outline the function of each plant cell

component.

Plasmodesma: Microscopic channels

which cross the cell walls of plant cells.
Enable transport and communication be-
Make sure you can link tween individual plant cells.
the structure of a cell
organelle with its
function.

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B BACTERIA CELLS
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Bacterial cells, like many other animals and plants, produce and secrete toxins that
have an effect on other organisms. WEAK
 DNA is free in the cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell in the area called the nu-
cleoid.
 A section of DNA containing a genetic code for a metabolve unwinds and
hydrogen bonds break.
 RNA nucleotides line up (complementary base pairing). Messenger RNA is
formed. This process is known an transcription.
 The next process is the production of the bacterial protein. This is called
translation and it occurs at the ribosomes.
 Transcription and translation can occur simultaneously because the genetic
material is free in the nucleoid surrounded by ribosomes.
 The newly made protein toxin is moved to the surface membrane ready to
be secreted to cause infection.

Note that many bacteria are beneficial to humans and to eukaryotes.

1. Name the type of ribosome found in

bacteria.

2. Explain how the ultrastructure of a bac-

terium capsule prevents dehydration.

Ribosome size is determined by their ability to form sediment in a solution. Eukaryotic ribosomes are deter-
mined as 80S whereas prokaryotic cell ribosomes are smaller and are 70S.

Make sure you can link

the structure of a cell
organelle with its
function.

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B GRAM STAINING
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It is important that microbiologists can correctly identify bacteria that cause infections to enable them to decide the most effective treatment. UNSURE

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During the staining technique, two stains are added to the bacterial
smear: crystal violet and safranin.

Gram Positive Gram Negative

If you see a purple stain when ob- If the smear has retained the pink
serving the smear under a micro- safranin stain, this shows that
scope it shows that Gram-positive Gram-negative bacteria are pre-
sent. This is because their thinner
bacteria are present.
cell walls and lipid membranes
allow ethanol (applied during the
method) to wash off all the crystal
violet purple stain and to then re-
tain the pink safranin stain.

1. Briefly explain how to carry out gram

staining.

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B SPECIALISED CELLS (I)
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Palisade mesophyll cells Root hair cell Sperm cell
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MY NOTES:

Palisade mesophyll cells found in leaves These cells are found at a plant’s roots, Sperm cells are male gametes in animals.
are rectangular box shaped cells that con- near the growing tip. They have long hair- They have a tail like structure called a un-
tain chloroplasts. The chloroplasts are able like extensions called root hairs. The root dulipodium so they can move. They also
hairs increase the surface area of the cell contain many mitochondria to supply the
to absorb a large amount of light for pho-
to maximise the movement of water and energy needed for this movement. The
tosynthesis. They also move around in the minerals from the soil into the plant root. sperm head is 3 μm wide and 4 μm long. It
cytoplasm in order to maximise the is made up of an acrosome, which contains Scientists researching fertilisation in humans
amount of light absorbed. digestive enzymes. These enzymes are need to understand how sperm cells are
released when the sperm meets the egg,
adapted for their specific function. The diagram
to digest the protective layer and allow the
sperm to penetrate. The sperm’s function shows a human sperm cell. Complete the miss-
is to deliver genetic information to the egg ing labels, X and Y, on the diagram.
cell or ovum (female gamete). This is ferti-
lisation

Do you understand the 1. Explain how the mid-piece of a human

meaning of the key
terms ‘gametes’ and
sperm cell is specialised to support the
‘water potential’? function of its tail.

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B SPECIALISED CELLS (II)
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Egg cells Red Blood cells White blood cell
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MY NOTES:

Egg cells, or ova, are the female gametes Red blood cells or erythrocytes are a bi- Neutrophils are a type of white blood cell
in animals. An egg cell is one of the largest concave shape. This increases the surface and they play an important role in the im-
cells in the human body, and is approxi- area to volume ratio of an erythrocyte. mune system. They have multi-lobed nu-
mately 0.12 mm in diameter. It contains a They are flexible so that they can squeeze clei, which enables them to squeeze
nucleus which houses the genetic material. through narrow blood capillaries. Their though small gaps when travelling to the
The zona pellucida is the outer protective function is to transport oxygen around the site of infection. The cytoplasm holds lyso-
layer/membrane of the egg. Attached to body. In mammals, erythrocytes do not somes that contain enzymes that are used 1. Explain how the shape of red blood cells
this is the corona radiata, which consists of have a nucleus or other organelles. This to digest pathogens that are ingested by allows them to carry out their function.
two or three layers. Its function is to sup- increases space for the haemoglobin mole- the neutrophil.
ply proteins needed by the fertilised egg cules inside the cell that carry oxygen. 2. What is the function of neutrophils?
cell.

Do you understand the

meaning of the key
terms ‘pathogen and
‘Haemoglobin’ ?

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B EPITHELIAL TISSUE
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Squamous epithelial tissue Ciliated columnar epithelial tissue Endothelial tissue
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MY NOTES:

Location: lines organs and surfaces Location: line the trachea in the respirato- Location: found lining the heart, blood
ry system, column-shaped ciliated cells vessels and lymphatic vessels
with hair-like structures called cilia cover-
ing the exposed cell surface

Function: one cell thick, form thin, Function: protect the lungs from infection Function: The cells provide a short diffu-
smooth, flat layers. Ideal for rapid diffu- by sweeping away pathogens and se- sion pathway for the movement of various
sion e.g. alveoli in lungs - rapid diffusion of creting mucus to trap pathogens substances, such as: 1. What is the name of the lung tissue that con-
oxygen  products of digestion into blood tains ciliated cells?
capillaries
 blood plasma and tissue fluid in and A columnar endothelium
out of blood capillaries. B columnar epithelium
Damage caused by smoking: Smoking How the lungs are protected: They se- How arteriosclerosis develops: Carbon
C squamous endothelium
irritates and causes inflammation and scar- crete mucus to help trap any unwanted monoxide and high blood pressure can
ring in the epithelium tissue of the lungs. particles that are present in the air that damage the inner lining of the arteries. D squamous epithelium
The alveoli walls become thicker due to you breathe in. This protects your lungs White blood cells repair the damage and
scarring and produce more mucus. The because it prevents bacteria reaching the encourage the growth of smooth muscle 2. Chemicals in cigarette smoke reduce the
damage to the air sacs causes emphysema alveoli. and the deposition of fatty substances movement of the cilia on ciliated cells in the
and the lungs lose their natural elasticity. such as cholesterol under the endothelium human lung. Explain how reducing the move-
lining of arteries, not on the surface. This
ment of these cilia can result in a smoker hav-
process of deposition is called atheroscle-
rosis ing to cough.

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B MUSCLE TISSUE (I)
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Muscles are composed of cells that are elongated and form fibres. Muscle cells contain protein filaments called actin and myosin that enable muscles to con-
tract and cause movement. There are three types of muscle tissue: UNSURE
 Skeletal muscle is found attached to bones. You can control its contraction and relaxation, and it sometimes contracts in response to reflexes. WEAK
 Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. It contracts at a steady rate to make the heartbeat. It is not under voluntary control.
 Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs, such as the stomach and bladder. It is also not under voluntary control.

MY NOTES:

1. Heart disease caused by atherosclerosis

is a major problem in the UK. Smoking
cigarettes and drinking alcohol are life-
Skeletal Muscle Fibre: style factors that increase the risk of
atherosclerosis. State one other lifestyle
 Muscle tissue needs to be able contract (shorten in length) in order to move bones.
factor that increases the risk of athero-
 In a muscle, cells join up to make muscle fibres. These are long strands of cells sharing nuclei and cytoplasm, which sclerosis.
is known as the sarcoplasm.

 Inside the muscle cell cytoplasm are many mitochondria, specialised endoplasmic reticulum known as sarcoplasmic
reticulum and a number of microfibrils.

 Each muscle fibre is surrounded by a cell surface membrane called the sarcolemma.

 Skeletal muscle shows a stripy/banding appearance under a microscope.

 Skeletal muscle is made up of thousands of muscle fibres. Each muscle fibre is made up of myofibrils

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Sarcomere: The span from one z-line to the next is known as the sarcomere. When the muscle
is relaxed, this is approximately 2.5 μm in length. This length reduces when the muscle contracts
because the I-band and H-zone lengths are reduced. The A-band does not change in length dur-
ing contraction.
There are two protein filaments found in muscle cells. This filament made of actin and thick fila-
ments made of myosin.
 During muscle contraction, the thin actin filaments move and overlap the thick myosin
filaments. The sarcomere shortens, decreasing the size of the overall muscle.

1. A young athlete is very good at long-

distance running but is not good at
sprinting. Discuss how this difference
relates to the types of muscle fibre in his
Slow Twitch Muscle Fibres Fast Twitch Muscle Fibres legs.

Slow twitch muscles are more effective at using oxygen to Fast twitch oxidative muscle fibres are similar in structure to 2. Name the two myofilaments found in a
generate energy in the form of ATP, for continuous and ex- slow twitch muscle fibres. They contain many mitochondria, skeletal muscle fibre that give it its stri-
tended muscle contractions over a long time. These fibres myoglobin and blood capillaries, but they are able to hydro- ated appearance.
help marathon runners and endurance cyclists to continue for lyse ATP much more quickly and therefore contract quickly.
hours. Slow twitch fibres have: They are relatively resistant to fatigue. 3. Explain the function of the sarcoplasmic
reticulum in skeletal muscle tissue.
 less sarcoplasmic reticulum Fast twitch glycolytic muscle fibres have relatively less myo-
 more mitochondria for sustained contraction globin, few mitochondria and few capillaries. They contain a
 more myoglobin large concentration of glycogen that provides fuel for anaero-
 a dense capillary network bic respiration. They contract rapidly but also fatigue.
 these fibres release ATP slowly by aerobic respiration.

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B NERVOUS TISSUE (I)
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 The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal
cord. It is made up of billions of non-myelinated nerve cells and long-
er, myelinated axons (axons with myeline sheath) and dendrons that
carry nerve impulses. Nervous tissue is made of nerve cells called
neurons.

 Neurons are cells that receive and facilitate nerve impulses, or action
potentials, across their membrane and pass them onto the next neu-
ron. They consist of a large cell body called a soma with small projec-
tions called dendrites and an axon. The end of the axon is called the
axon terminal. It is separated from the dendrite of the following neu-
ron by a small gap called a synapse.

1. The table shows the speed of a nerve

impulse in different types of axon of the
same diameter.

Resting Potential Action Potential

Resting potential is the term given to a neuron that is Fast twitch oxidative muscle fibres are similar in
not transmitting an action potential and is at rest. structure to slow twitch muscle fibres. They contain
many mitochondria, myoglobin and blood capillaries, Explain the difference in the speed of the nerve
but they are able to hydrolyse ATP much more quickly
impulse along these axons.
and therefore contract quickly. They are relatively
resistant to fatigue. 2. Explain how hyperpolarisation occurs in an
There are several
topics covered in
axon cell.
nervous tissue. Take
time to study them
carefully.

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B NERVOUS TISSUE (II)
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Resting and Action Potential WEAK
Nerve impulses are ionic imbalances that travel from one end of a neuron to the other
1
because of a potential difference.
When a neuron is at rest, the inside of the cell is negatively charged relative to the out-
2
side.
Sodium-potassium channels pumping Na+ ions to the outside of the cell and K+ ions into
3
the cell. The resting potential is approximately -70mV.

4 When a stimulus is applied, an action potential occurs.

Sodium channels open and the sodium ions flood into the cell. The positive sodium ions
5
cause the resting potential of the cell to decrease – this is call depolarisation.
Once +40mV is reached, the Na+ channels close and the K+ channels open. K+ floods out of
6
the cell and the charge goes back down – this is called repolarisation.
This process of depolarisation and repolarisation continues and the action potential
7
moves all the way down the neuron.
To continue its journey through the nervous system, the signal needs to start an action 1. Nerve impulses
8 potential in the next neuron. The two neurons will not be in direct contact, and the ac- are important in the control of many
tion potential cannot ‘jump’ across the synaptic cleft (gap). activities in the human body. The graph
shows changes in the transmembrane
As the action potential reaches the end of the first neuron, Ca 2+ channels are opened and
9 potential during the transmission of a
Ca2+ flows into the cell.
nerve impulse along the axon of a motor
This induces vesicles containing neurotransmitters to fuse with the presynaptic mem- neurone. State the time period when
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brane, and the neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft. depolarisation is taking place.
The neurotransmitters move across the synapse and bind to complimentary receptors in
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the postsynaptic membrane.
This triggers the opening of Na+ channels, which causes depolarisation of the membrane
12
and the start of a new action potential in the second neuron. Spend some time on
learning this. Make
The neurotransmitters are then actively absorbed back into the original neuron, or an sure you can explain
the graph above fully,
13 enzyme is released to break them down, stopping them from generating continuous ac- it has appeared on
sample papers.
tion potentials.

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B NERVOUS TISSUE (III)
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Synapses
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 When the nerve impulse reaches the end of the neuron, it must
cross a gap called a synapse to get to the next neuron or the effector
cell.
 A nerve impulse crosses the synapse in the form of a chemical trans-
mitter called a neurotransmitter.
 Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse and initiate an action
potential in the neuron at the other side. The presynaptic neuron
ends in a swelling called the synaptic bulb and it contains many mito-
chondria as ATP is needed.
 The neurotransmitters are stored in temporary vesicles in the synap-
tic bulb that can fuse with the surface to release the neurotrans-
mitters into the synapse.
 They also contain voltage-gated calcium ion channels.

Problems that can occur:

Parkinson’s disease is a genetic disease that affects the nervous system. Parkinson’s sufferers are not able to pro-
duce the naturally occurring chemical dopamine, a neurotransmitter that helps smooth and normal movements.
Without this, people show symptoms of: Nerve impulses are transmitted across synap-
 slow movement ses by neurotransmitters. The diagram shows
 speech problems what happens to a neurotransmitter called
 tremors when moving acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft.
 poor balance
The drug, L-dopa, replaces the dopamine that is lost in people with Parkinson’s disease. Serotonin is another of the
body’s naturally occurring neurotransmitters. It is normally active in the brain and can cause problems if it is not
produced. Some forms of depression are caused by a reduced amount of serotonin in the brain.
Organophosphates are chemicals that prevent
the cholinesterase enzyme working. When they
are used as crop pesticides they can kill the
small animals that feed on the crops.
Practice drawing a
synapse and labelling
1. Explain how these pesticides kill small
each step showing
how an action poten- animals.
tial crosses.

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C ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE
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 Electrons within each shell will not have the same amount of energy and so the energy levels or shells are broken down into subshells called orbitals. These are
called s, p, d and f orbitals. The orbitals have different energy states.
 The Aufbau principle states that electrons fill the orbital with the lowest available energy state in relation to the proximity to the nucleus before filling orbitals
with higher energy states. This gives the most stable electron configuration possible.
 Spin – electrons have two possible states, ‘spin up’ and ‘spin down’. In an orbital, each electron will be in a different ‘spin state’.

Half arrows are used to represent each electron in the orbit-

als. They are drawn facing up and down as each electron in an
orbital will have a different spin

Lithium (3 electrons) 1. Which of the following elements has this

1. The electrons sit in orbitals 4. The third shell consists of 1
electronic structure?
within the shell. Each orbital s-type orbital, 3 p-type orbitals
can hold up to two electrons. and 5 d-type orbitals. 1s2 2s2 2p2

A Boron
2. The first shell can hold 2 5. Electrons fill the lowest en-
B Carbon
electrons in a s-type orbital. ergy level orbitals first.
Nitrogen (7 electrons) C Oxygen

D Sulfur
3. The second shell consists of 6. Where there are several
2. Explain the arrangement of the electrons in
1s-type orbital and 3 p-type orbitals of exactly the same
Recap the basic the third energy level of silicon.
structure of an atom orbitals. energy (e.g. the 3 2p orbitals
from KS4, be able to
draw the electronic of the second shell), the elec- 3. Explain why the first ionisation energy of
Sodium (11 electrons)
configuration of
trons will occupy different silicon (789 kJ mol–1) is greater than that of
atoms.
germanium (762 kJ mol–1).

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C IONIC BONDING
 Ionic bonding occurs when an atom of an element loses one or more SECURE
electron and donates it to an atom of a different element.
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 The atom that loses electrons becomes positively charged and the atom
that gains electron(s) become negatively charged because of the imbal- WEAK
ance of protons and electrons.

 Ions containing more than one element can also be formed. For example,
in sodium hydroxide, Na+ bonds with the hydroxide ion (OH)– .
 The opposite charges on the ions are what hold them together. This is
electrostatic attraction.
 Electrostatic attraction: the force experienced by oppositely charged
particles. It holds the particles strongly together.

MY NOTES:

The production of the ionic compound calci-

um chloride is an important industrial

process. Calcium chloride has a large range of

uses, for example in the pharmaceutical
 The opposite charged ions in sodium industry and in the food industry.
chloride form a giant ionic lattice where
the ions are arranged in a regular 1. State the name of the force between
pattern. the calcium and chloride ions.
 The strength of the electrostatic force
and, therefore, of the ionic bond is de- 2. Draw dot-and-cross diagrams to show
pendent on the ionic charge and the the arrangement of the outer electrons
ionic radii of the ions. in the calcium ion and the two chloride
 The more electrons a positive ion has,
ions in calcium chloride, CaCl2.
the more shells it will have. If an ion has
more shells, then its radius will be big- Draw dot and cross diagrams to show the ar-
You should be able to ger than an ion with fewer shells. rangement of the outer electrons in the mag-
show the bonding in
NaCl, NaF, Li2O, Li3N  The electrostatic force is stronger when
nesium ion and the two chloride ions in magne-
and MgO. the ionic charge is higher.
sium chloride, MgCl2.

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C COVALENT BONDING
Covalent bonding usually occurs between atoms of two non-metals. A covalent bond forms when an electron is SECURE
shared between the atoms. These electrons come from the top energy level of the atoms. UNSURE

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In some covalent molecules, both sharing elec-
trons come from one atom. This is called a dative
(coordinate) covalent bond.
Covalent bonds can be formed when atoms share
more than one pair of electrons, e.g. oxygen at-
oms. The double bonds between the oxygen are
formed by two shared pairs of electrons

MY NOTES:
Lone Pairs: A lone pair is a
non-binding pair of elec-
trons.

An ammonium ion contains

a dative bond. When am-
monia reacts with hydro-
chloric acid, a hydrogen ion
from the acid is transferred
to the ammonia molecule.
A lone pair of electrons on
the nitrogen atom forms a 1. Using dot and cross diagrams, show co-
dative covalent bond with
valent bonding between two oxygen
the hydrogen ion.
atoms and in hydrochloric acid.

Organic compounds – a compound that contains one or more carbons in a carbon

chain.
 Carbon makes four covalent bonds so it forms many compounds which are
called organic compounds.
 Methane has the formula CH4. Each carbon atom bonds covalently with four
hydrogen atoms.
 These four bonds mean that methane is not a flat molecule. It has a tetrahe-
You should be able to dral structure. This is because the bonds are as separated from each other as
show the bonding in possible, because the negative electron pairs repel each other, with each
CH4, O2, Cl2, N2.
bond angle being 109.5°.

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C METALLIC BONDING
 Metals are giant structures of atoms held together by metallic bonds. The metal structure is a regular SECURE
lattice. UNSURE
 Metallic bonding is caused because the electrons in the highest energy level of a metal atom has the
ability to become delocalised. WEAK

 They are free to move through the metal in a ‘sea’ of electrons.

 This gives the metal nuclei a positive charge which is attracted to the negative charge on the delocal-
ised electrons.
 There is a very strong force of attraction between the positive metal nuclei and the negative delocal-
ised electrons.

Non-polar molecule – a molecule where the electrons are distrib-

uted evenly throughout the molecule. E.g. covalent bonding in
chlorine.
Polar molecule – a molecule with partial positive charge in one MY NOTES:
part of the molecule and similar negative charge in another part
due to an uneven electron distribution.

 Metallic bonding is caused because the

Electronegativity– This is the electrons in the highest energy level of a
tendency of an atom to attract metal atom has the ability to become
a bonding pair of electrons. delocalised. What do you understand
Atoms that have similar electro- by the term ‘highest energy level’?
negativities form covalent  Draw a full labelled diagram and write a
bonds. paragraph to explain metallic bonding.

Make sure you can

explain the term ‘sea
of electrons’.

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C INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
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London Dispersion Forces Dipole-dipole Forces Hydrogen Bonding
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 London dispersion forces are also  These are permanent forces be-  The strongest form of intermolec-
called temporary dipole – induced tween polar molecules. ular force.
dipole forces.  Polar molecules have a perma-  These are a special type of dipole-
 They are weak forces present be- nent negative end and a perma- dipole bond and are forces that Intermolecular forces – the
tween non-polar covalent mole- nent positive end. are about 10% the strength of a attraction or repulsion between
cules.  These oppositely charged end covalent bond. neighbouring molecules. All
 When the electron distribution in attract each other.  Hydrogen bonds will form when intermolecular attractions are
a molecule becomes non-  Dipole-dipole forces are slightly compounds have hydrogen direct- van der Waals forces.
symmetrical (i.e. there are more stronger than London dispersion ly bonded to fluorine, oxygen or
electrons at one end of the mole- forces but are still weak in com- nitrogen.
cule than the other) then one end parison to a covalent bond.  When two of these molecules are
of the molecule can become more  Molecules that have permanent close together, there will be an
positive and one end can become dipole-dipole forces include hy- attraction between the positive
more negative. drogen chloride, HCl, and iodine end of one and the lone pair of
 This causes a temporary dipole. monochloride, ICl. electrons of the other. This is a
The positive and negative charge hydrogen bond.
in the dipole can disturb the elec-  This is different to other dipole-
trons in a nearby molecule, repel- dipole forces because there are
ling the electrons and so causing inner bonding electrons.
(inducing) a dipole in that mole-  The single electron in the hydro- Nitrogen(IV) oxide is a gas which dissolves in
cule. gen atom is drawn to the nitro- water in the atmosphere to form
 The molecule with the temporary gen, oxygen or fluorine atom.
dipole and the molecule with the acid rain.
induced dipole attract each other
Electronegativity of nitrogen 3.006
and pull the molecules together.
Electronegativity of oxygen 3.610

1. Explain the two types of intermolecular

force that exist in nitrogen(IV) oxide.

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C QUANTITIES USED IN CHEMISTRY (I)
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There are several different methods to balance a chemical equation. Your teacher may have shown you a different method from the
Balancing Equations WEAK
one described below. Use whichever method suites you best!

C2H5OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Now count up eve-
rything you have
added and place
5
the total number in
Balancing Chemical Equations front. x2
x3 x3
Split the equation in half C2H5OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Rewrite the final C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O
1 by drawing a line through
6 equation with final
the arrow.
numbers.
Circle each element indi-
vidually to make them
C2H5OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O
easier to count
2
(remember to circle the
numbers after each ele-
Aluminium corrodes quickly in air to form a
thin protective aluminium oxide layer that pre-
Now count the number of vents further oxidation. This protective layer
√ √ √
atoms on the left and makes it suitable for use in drink cans.
C2H5OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O
compare with the right. If
3 1. Write the balanced equation for the
the numbers match place
reaction of aluminium in air to form
a tick above them.
In this case, only the oxygen balance as there are 3 on aluminium oxide.
the left and 3 on the right.
Now starting ADDING
atoms so that the equa-
tion balances. Remember O2 CO2 H2O
4
Use a technique to if you add 1 atom in a
balance equations that O2 H2O
you are familiar with. molecule, you must add
the entire molecule.

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C QUANTITIES USED IN CHEMISTRY (II)
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Moles, Molar Masses and  Chemical equations allow you to work out the masses of the reactants you need to use in order to get a specific mass of prod-
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Molarities uct.
 One mole of a chemical means there are 6.023x1023 particles (Avogadro’s constant).
 A mole is the amount of a substance which has the same number of particles as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12.
 So one mole of carbon dioxide has the same number of particles as one mole of gold. The molar mass of a substance is equal to
the mass of one mole of a substance.
 Mole = Mass ÷ Mr MY NOTES:

Ar Mr

The relative atomic mass (Ar) of The relative formula mass is the
an element on the periodic table sum of all the relative atomic
tells you how much mass there is masses of all the atoms in the
in one mole of the element. empirical formula (simplest for-
mula) of a compound (Mr).
E.g. Ar of H = 1 E.g. Mr of H20 = (1x2)+16=18

Ar of O = 16 Mr of O2 = 2x16=32
1. Calculate the number of moles (to 2dp) in…
A. 13g of Na
B. 26g of Mg
What is the number of moles in 20 g of sodium hydroxide, NaOH?
Number of moles = mass/Mr C. 46g of Ca
For sodium hydroxide Mr = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
Number of moles = 20÷40= 0.5 moles
2. Calculate the mass of …

What is the number of moles in 136.5 g of potassium? A. 2 moles of Li

Number of moles of an element = mass/Ar B. 3.5 moles of C
For potassium Ar =39
Practice makes perfect
Number of moles = 136.5÷39= 3.5 moles C. 0.3 moles of S
when calculating
moles. You will find
plenty of exercises
online to improve your
skills.

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Empirical Formula Molecular Formula UNSURE

This shows the ratio between elements in a chemical com- Molecular formulae are used for simple molecules. To WEAK

pound. It is useful when discussing giant structures such a work out the molecular formula you need to know the
sodium chloride. The empirical formula of a compound can empirical formula and the relative molecular mass.
be calculated from the masses of each element in the com-
pound. MY NOTES:

Suppose 3.2g of sulfur reacts with oxygen to produce 6.4g E.g the empirical formula of a hydrocarbon is CH2 and its
of sulfur oxide. What is the formula of the oxide? Mr is 42.
Use the fact that the Ar of sulfur is 32 and the Ar of oxygen  the mass of the atoms in the empirical formula is
14
is 16.
 42 ÷ 14 = 3
 so you need to multiply the numbers in the em-
pirical formula by 3
The molecular formula of the hydrocarbon is therefore
C3H6.

1. An oxide of carbon contains 27% carbon

and 73% oxygen. What is its empirical for-
mula?
Example: A compound contains 75% carbon and 25% hydrogen. What is its empirical formula?
2. Fluorspar is made of calcium and fluo-
C H rine. If 51% is calcium, calculate the empir-
ical formula.
Amount 75 25
3. 1.68g of iron is combined with 0.48g of
Convert to moles ( /Mr) /12 = 6.25 /1 = 25
oxygen. What is the empirical formula of
the new compound?
Calculate mole ratio (divide by smallest 6.25/ 6.25 25/6.25
number)
You will find several
worksheets and =1 =4
worked examples for
this topic online.
Empirical formula C H4

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C QUANTITIES USED IN CHEMISTRY (IV) KEYWORDS
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Titration – a method of volumetric UNSURE
analysis used to calculate the con-
Number of moles (N) = molarity (C) x volume of solution (V) (dm3) centration of a solution. WEAK
Solution –a liquid mixture where a
N = CV solute is dissolved in a solvent
Standard solution – a solution of
known concentration used in volu-
How many moles of hydrochloric acid are there in What is the concentration of a sample of sodium metric analysis.
100 cm3 of 1M hydrochloric acid solution? hydroxide solution if 10 dm3 contains 0.5 mol? Solute – the substance dissolved
in a solvent to form a solution.
Number of moles (N) = molarity (C) x volume of Number of moles (N) = molarity (C) x volume of Solvent - a liquid
solution (V) (dm3) solution (V) (dm3)
that dissolves anoth-
N = CV N = CV
er substance.
The volume is given in cm3 so this needs to be con- 0.5 = C x 10
verted into dm3 by dividing by 1000. (Remember 1
dm3 = 1000 cm3) C=
= 0.05M

number of moles = x1
= 0.1 mol

1. What volume in cm3 of 2M sulfuric acid solu-

tion would you need to ensure you had a sam-
ple containing 0.05 mol?

2. Calculate the number of moles of HCl in 20

cm3 of a 2 mol dm–3 solution of HCl(aq).

Look at the diagram to

the right, can you
outline the steps
involved in a titration?

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C QUANTITIES USED IN CHEMISTRY (V)
STATE SYMBOLS SECURE

Stoichiometry – involves using the relationships between the reactants and the products in a chemical reaction A solid substance is indicated by (s) UNSURE
to work out how much product will be produced from given amounts of reactants. A solution is indicated by (aq) WEAK
A liquid is indicated by (l)
A gas is indicated by (g)
Calculate the expected mass of calcium chloride produced when 50 g of calcium carbonate is reacted with ex-
cess hydrochloric acid.

Ar (H) = 1, Ar (C) =12, Ar (0) = 16, Ar (Cl) = 35.5, Ar (Ca) = 40 MY NOTES:

One mole of CaCO3 produces one mole of CaCl2.

You know this from the balanced equation

CaCO3+ 2HCl → CaCl2+ CO2+H2O.

This shows a one to one (1:1) ratio.

Add up the relative atomic masses for each compound.

40 +12 + (3x16) g = 100 g of CaCO3 produces 40 + (35.5x2) g = 111 g of CaCl2.

As one mole of CaCO3 produces one mole of CaCl2 then

100 g CaCO3 produces 111 g CaCl2.
In this case, only 50 g of CaCO3 was used so

50 g CaCO3 produces x 50 g CaCl2. 1. Calculate the expected mass of water if

50 g CaCO3 produces 55.5 g CaCl2. 10 g of oxygen is reacted with excess
hydrogen.
You could say that only a mole of CaCO3 was used so therefore only half the amount of CaCl2 would be pro- 2. When 50 g of calcium carbonate is re-
duced and this would give the same answer of 55.5 g. acted with excess hydrochloric acid so-
This is the theoretical mass. lution to make calcium chloride, the
theoretical yield is 55 g. When the reac-
tion was carried out, only 44 g of calci-
um chloride was produced. Calculate
Theoretical mass – the expected amount of product the percentage yield of calcium chloride.
Video Clip: https:// from a reaction calculated from the balanced equation.
www.khanacademy.or
g/science/chemistry/
Percentage yield – the actual amount of yield worked
chemical-reactions- out as a percentage of the theoretical yield.
stoichiome/
stoichiometry-ideal/v/

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C THE PERIODIC TABLE
Period 1: Contains hydrogen and helium. Both are gases. The electrons in these two elements fill the 1s orbital. Heli- SECURE

group um only has two electrons and, chemically, helium is unreactive. Hydrogen readily loses or gains an electron, and so can UNSURE
period behave chemically as both a group 1 and a group 7 element. Hydrogen can form compounds with most elements and is
the most abundant chemical element in the universe. WEAK

1. Explain why calcium is an s block ele-

ment.

2. An element has the electronic configura-

tion 1s2 2s1 Identify which period the
Period 2: Contains eight elements, lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and neon. The outer electrons element is in.
in these elements fill the 2s and 2p orbitals. Nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine can all form diatomic molecules. Neon is a noble gas.
Carbon is a giant molecular structure. 3. Complete the electronic configuration
for an atom of sodium.
Period 3: Contains eight elements, sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine and argon. The outer
electrons in these elements fill the 3s and 3p orbitals. 1s2, 2s2,.....

Period 4: Contains 18 elements, from potassium to krypton. The first row of the transition elements is in this period. The outer
electrons on these elements fill the 4s, 4p and 3d orbitals.

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C PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS (I)
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Atomic Radius: The radius of an atom changes depending on what is around it.
 The atomic radius decreases across the period from left to right. Across
the group, more protons and electrons are added. However, the extra
electrons are added to the same s and p sub-shells and so the size does
not increase. The extra protons increase nuclear charge. The increased
nuclear charge attracts the extra electrons and pulls them closer to the
nucleus. This leads to a decrease in atomic radius.
 As you go down a group the atomic radii increases. This is because the
extra electrons are added to additional shells and so the radius increases.
Although nuclear charge increases, the number of inner shells increases
and so the nuclear charge is shielded more. This means that the atomic
radius increases.

KEYWORDS
Isoelectronic – having the
same numbers of elec-
trons.
Cations – ions with a pos- 1. Explain the trends in atomic radius as
itive charge. you move across a period from left to
Anions – ions with a neg- right.
ative charge.
2. Outline the trends in the ionic radii of
cations and anions moving across a peri-
od from left to right.
Ionic Radius: The trends in ionic radius down a group follow a similar pattern to the trend for atomic radius down a group. This is
because extra electrons are added to extra shells as you go down the group therefore giving a larger size.
 Cations have a smaller radius than their corresponding atom. As you go across a period, the cations all have the same elec-
tronic structure. They are isoelectronic, therefore although number of electrons remains the same, the nuclear charge increas-
es, for example, Na+, Mg2+, A3+. However, the number of protons increases across the period. This pulls the electrons more
strongly to the centre of the ion so the ionic radii of the cations decreases as you go across the period.
 Anions have a larger radius than the corresponding atom because there is more repulsion between the extra electrons. As
you go across the period, the anions are all isoelectronic, for example, N3−, O2−, F−. They have more electrons not fewer. The
number of protons still increases as you go across the period whilst the number of shells and electrons stays the same so the
ionic radius of the anions also decreases as you go across the period.

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C PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS (II)
Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons. It increases as you go across a period. It de creases as SECURE
you go down a group. UNSURE

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Fluorine is the most
electronegative
element

Electronegativity depends on:

 the number of protons in the nucleus
 the distance from the nucleus of the bonding pair of electrons
 how much shielding there is from inner electrons

1. State the meaning of the term electro-

The Group 0 gases such as argon that negativity.
do not form bonds do not have elec- 2. Describe the trends in electronegativity
tronegativity that can be reliably deter-
in the periods and groups of the period-
mined, because they do not form com-
pounds/bonds. ic table.

3. State the three factors that affect the

electronegativity of an element.

Make sure you can

interpret the graph to
the right and explain
why electronegativity
changes.

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C PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS (III)
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First ionisation energy is the minimum energy needed for one mole UNSURE
of the outermost electrons to be removed from one mole of atoms in
a gaseous state. WEAK

It takes more energy to remove an electron as you go across the peri-

od. This is because the number of protons increase across the period
so the positive charge on the nucleus increases. This means that the
force of attraction pulling on the outer electron increases. However,
you can see there is not a steady increase in first ionisation energy.
There is a pattern in the dips and increases for each period.

Periodicity – the repeat- First ionisation energy – Electron affinity – the

ing pattern seen by the the energy needed for charge in energy when
elements in the periodic one mole of electrons to one mole of a gaseous
table.
be removed from one atom gains one mole of
gaseous atoms. electrons to form a nega-
tive ion.

Period 3 elements bond with oxygen to

form oxides. The type of bonding in these ox-
ides depends on the electronegativity of each
element in the oxide. The table shows the elec-
tronegativity of some period 3 elements, as
Electron affinity can be simply defined well as for oxygen. Explain how bonding in the
as an atom’s ability to gain an electron oxides of elements in period 3 changes across
and become a negative ion. It is the
the period.
change in energy (kJ mol–1) of a neu-
tral gaseous atom when an electron is
added to the atom to form a negative
ion.

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The elements in the periodic table also show periodicity for melting and boiling points. UNSURE
Melting and boiling points depend on the strength of the forces between the atoms in an ele-
ment. WEAK
 Going down group 1, the melting and boiling points decrease. This means that the forc-
es of attraction get weaker.
 The melting and boiling points increase as you go down group 7. This means that the
forces of attraction get stronger.
 When an element melts, energy is used to overcome some of the attractive forces hold-
ing the atoms or molecules of the element together.
 When an element boils, most of the rest of the attractive forces are broken.
 The stronger the forces between the atoms, the higher the melting and boiling point
will be.
Malleable – can be hammered into
shape with breaking.
Ductile – can be hammered than or
stretched into wires without breaking.
Metallic bonding allows for electrical conductivity through a
solid or liquid metal. The delocalised electrons carry the electric
charge.
The delocalised electrons in metals also absorb heat energy
which gives them kinetic energy. This energy is then transferred
through the metal by these electrons. Metals are good thermal
conductors. Most metals have high melting and boiling
points. The table shows the melting and boiling
points of three metals: sodium, magnesium
and potassium.

1. Discuss the different melting and boiling

points of the three metals and the
The structure of metals also explains why they can be malleable trends they show.
or ductile. The atoms in the layers are able to roll over each
over. They can move to new positions without breaking the me-
tallic bonds.
Evaluate how type of
bonding, intermolecu-
lar forces and mole-
cule size affects the
melting point in
elements in period 3
and groups 2 and 6.

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Oxygen Water Dilute Hydrochloric Acid Dilute Sulfuric Acid WEAK

react rapidly with oxygen react with water and pro- Metals above copper in the reactivity series can react
Group duce a basic solution with dilute acids to form metal salts
1 2M(s) +2H2O(l) → 2M+(aq) Mg +2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
+2OH–(aq) +H2(g) KEYWORDS
Oxidation – loss of electrons from
burn in oxygen or air to produce hydroxides in the an atom/ion.
Mg +H2SO4→ MgSO4 + H2
Group form metal oxides reaction with water Basic solution – a solution with a pH
above 7.
2 2M + O2 → 2MO M(s) +2H2O(l) → M(OH)2 Allotropes – two or more different
(aq) +H2(g) Na +2HCl→ 2NaCl + H2 physical forms that an element can
react with oxygen not very reactive with wa- exist in e.g. graphite and diamond
are allotropes of carbon.
Group ter
4M + 3 O2 → 2M2O3 Amphoteric – substance that can
3 act as both an acid and a base.

The reactivity series is a list of metals in order of how reactive they are
Industrial chemists have to understand the
with oxygen, acids and water.
 The higher a metal is in the series, the more reactive it is. chemistry of oxides. For example, silicon diox-
 This is because it has a higher tendency to lose an electron and ide is used in glass making and carbon monox-
form a complete outer shell. ide is used in the extraction of iron from iron
 The more reactive a metal is, the more difficult it is to extract ore.
from its ore and the more likely it is to be found in a compound.
1. Explain how burning carbon in air can
lead to the formation of carbon monox-
ide.

2. Write the balanced equation for the

A metal will displace reaction between silicon and oxygen.
a less reactive metal
in a metal salt solu-
tion.

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An atom becomes an ion when it loses or gains an electron
or electrons. The term redox refers to the transfer of elec- UNSURE
trons that occurs during chemical reactions.
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When atoms of an element lose electrons, it is called oxi-
dation.
When electrons are gained, it is called reduction.

KEYWORDS
Redox – the transfer of electrons
during chemical reactions.

Half equation – an equation that

Oxidation Is Loss (of electrons),
shows the loss or gain of electrons
Reduction Is Gain (of electrons).
during a reaction

Assigning Oxidation States 1. Work out the oxidation state of chlorine in

the following compounds:
The oxidation state of an atom in an element is always zero. For example, in sodium, Na, it is 0 and A. HCl
1
in O2, oxygen, it is 0.
B. HClO
2 The oxidation state in an element or its ion is always its charge, including for polyatomic ions
C. NaClO2
3 The oxidation state of fluorine in a compound is always −1 as it is the most electronegative element.
D. ClO3
4 The oxidation state of oxygen is nearly always −2 (except in peroxides and FO, where it is −1, +1). E. ClO2

5 The oxidation state of chlorine in a compound is usually -1 unless bonded with F or O. F. Cl2O7

The oxidation state of hydrogen is +1 unless bonded to a metal when it is –1. Group 1 metals are +1,
Practice constructing 6 group 2 metals are +2, and aluminium is +3.
half equations, you
will find several
worksheets online. The sum of oxidation states in a compound is always 0. In polyatomic ions, the sum of the oxidation
7 state of each element in the formula is the overall charge.

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Waves generally start with a disturbance.
Wave Speed
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Waves transfer energy from one place to another, but without causing any net movement of material. V=fxλ

The energy transfer depends on the way an initial oscillating system is connected to its surroundings.

KEYWORDS  A wave travels one wavelength during its periodic time.

Oscillation – a regularly repeating  So that means you can calculate its speed, v, as wavelength, λ, divided by periodic time, T. However,
motion about a central value.
Period (or ‘periodic time’) – the instead of the periodic time, frequency is more commonly used, f, where f =
time taken for one whole cycle of an  Frequency is measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz)
oscillation, i.e. before the motion
starts to repeat itself. (Symbol: T ; SI  The mathematics of oscillation and of circular motion
unit: s.) are closely connected.
 The sine is a mathematical function of the angle
Frequency – f = i.e. the number through which you can imagine a crankshaft turning to
of whole cycles occurring in one drive the motion.
second. (Symbol: f ; SI unit: Hertz,  You can use this idea of the angle generating a cycle of
Hz.) oscillation when you compare two wave motions that
Displacement – how far the quanti- are not in phase with one another. The phase differ-
ty that is in oscillation has moved ence is usually given as an angle, where 360 o (or 2π
from its mean (rest) value at any radians) equates to a whole cycle – a shift equivalent
given time. to one wavelength in distance or one period in time.
Amplitude – the maximum value of
displacement in the oscillation cycle
– always measured from the mean
(rest) position.

1. Give the amplitude of the wave.

2. Give the wavelength of the wave.

3. Calculate the frequency of the wave.

Recap the basic
structure of a wave
including wavelength,
amplitude and fre-
quency.

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 When the displacement occurs in the same direction that the wave travels, for example in a
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sound wave, it is a longitudinal wave.
 In a transverse wave the displacement is at right angles to the direction of propagation of the WEAK
wave, for example, water ripples and electromagnetic waves.
 In a longitudinal wave, the different displacements of particles along the direction in which the
wave is propagating, lead to a series of compressions (where particles are packed closer together)
and rarefactions (where they are further apart).

MY NOTES:
Earthquakes and other seismic events below the
earth’s surface generate two types of shock wave: a
longitudinal ‘pressure’ wave and a transverse ‘shaking’
wave. They travel at different speeds and so will each
arrive at different times, making earthquakes quite
complex events to study.

1. Explain in detail how our ears can detect

sound waves. Include the terms com-
Transmission of sound as a pression and rarefaction in your answer.
longitudinal wave in air

Recap examples of
transverse and longi-
tudinal waves.

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 If the advancing wave-fronts encounter a flat obstacle in front of them, like a wall, most of the
Diffraction is a key characteristic of all wave’s energy is either absorbed or reflected by the wall. WEAK
waves. It means the tendency of a wave to  If the obstacle has edges or gaps, wave energy can travel round the edges or through the gaps. It
spread out in all directions, transferring is then that you may notice diffraction occurring.
energy to its surroundings as it does so.  Although after going through a gap much of the wave energy does keep moving forwards, some
of it spreads out in other directions.

 When a wave-front meets a diffraction grating, some of the wave’s energy continues propagating forward through the
A diffraction grating is a flat plane object. gaps between the grating lines. This is transmission.
It has a series of regular lines formed on it  Some more of the wave’s energy may be absorbed in the grating itself, but the remainder of the energy is scattered
that block parts of an advancing wave- backwards as a reflection.
front.

MY NOTES: KEYWORDS
Superposition – is the adding together of wave
displacements that occurs when waves from two
or more separate sources overlap at any given lo-
cation in space. The displacements simply add
mathematically.

Path difference – is the difference in length be- 1. Explain how the diffraction grating pro-
tween two (straight line) rays, e.g. one from a par- duces an emission spectrum. You can
ticular grating gap to a given point in space and the use a labelled diagram to help your ex-
The Dutch mathematician and scientist, Christiaan Huygens, developed a ray from the next-door grating gap to the same planation
geometrical construction to predict the shape of waves in water. point.

Interference pattern – a stationary pattern that

can result from the superposition of waves travel-
ling in different directions, provided they are co-
herent.

Coherent – literally means ‘sticking together’ and is

used to describe waves whose superposition gives
a visible interference pattern. To be coherent,
waves must share the same frequency and same
wavelength and have a constant phase difference.

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P DIFFRACTION GRATINGS (II)
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Gratings in Reflection mode Coherent Light Sources Emission Spectra
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 In reflection mode, instead of  When light is emitted from or  The quantum theory of light and
looking at what comes through a absorbed by matter, you can other electromagnetic radiations
grating, you look at the part of only explain what happens by is based on the experimental
the wave energy that is bounced thinking of light as being com- observation that there is a sim-
back off the grating surface. posed of tiny particles or ple relationship between the
‘packets of energy’, which are frequency, f, of the radiation and
 Once again, because the grating called photons. the energy, E, carried by each
lines are regularly spaced, an photon:
interference pattern is produced.  When thinking about the coher- E = hf
ence of light, you have to com- where h is the Planck constant, −6.626
bine ideas from wave theory 070 . 10−34 Js. That constant of propor-
with the idea of individual pho- tionality between energy and frequency
ton particles – what is called has been very precisely measured and
‘wave-particle duality’. experiments indicate it is universal.
An Emission Spectra
 If a chemical element or com-
pound is vaporised by heating in
a flame, or if you pass an electric
current at high voltage through a
1. Light from a sodium-vapour lamp passes
gas, you typically see light
emitted of a characteristic col- through the slits in a diffraction grating
our, according to the chemical and creates a pattern on a screen. This
nature of the material you are pattern is called an emission spectrum.
testing. When you look at the Which property of light produces the
spectrum of that light, by
pattern on the screen?
splitting it up using a prism or a
diffraction grating, what you see A absorption
is a number of bright, coloured
lines at definite frequencies. This B interference
is an emission spectrum. Each
C reflection
line in the spectrum matches to
photons all emitted with very D refraction
nearly the same frequency – and
therefore they also each have 2. Describe what is meant by coherence.
virtually the same energy.

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P STATIONARY WAVES RESONANCE
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 Oscillations of different amplitudes occur along the length of the wave in a pattern that does not
In a stationary wave (or standing wave) change over time. WEAK
energy is stored rather than transferred to  Points of minimum (ideally zero) amplitude are called nodes and occur at every half-wavelength
other locations. along the wave’s extent.
 Intermediate between the nodes are antinodes – points of maximum amplitude.

Resonance – the storing of energy in an  Stationary wave patterns most often occur in resonators, where the wave motion is confined in a fixed space. The resonator has
oscillation or a stationary wave, the ener- boundaries that prevent the wave progressing further and reflect its energy back.
gy coming from an external source of ap-  The resonator will also have a mechanism for interacting with and absorbing travelling wave energy from outside itself. Small
propriate frequency. amounts of energy collected over a period of time can be stored up in the stationary wave and build up a much larger amplitude oscil-
lation.
 This effect is resonance. It happens when the wave energy coming in from outside has a forcing frequency equal or very close to a
natural frequency of the resonator.

Musical Instruments

Both stringed and wind instruments depend on resonance to produce their musical notes.
In a stretched string, the oscillations are transverse, and the speed, v, at which waves travel down When a string on a guitar is plucked a sta-
tionary wave is set up and a sound is produced.
its length, L, depend on the string tension, T, and on the string’s mass, m, per unit length, μ (= ).
The diagram shows how a stationary wave on a
stretched string might be studied.
The wave speed can be calculated using the formula: v = 1. On the diagram, label a node and an
antinode.

Applications of Stationary Waves

Radio and TV antennas have a reflector element that bounces the incoming waves back and creates a stationary
wave pattern. The detector is placed at an antinode position for the particular wavelength of radiation the aerial
has been designed to pick up.
In microwave ovens, stationary wave patterns caused by reflections for the metal sides of the oven with hot and 2. State the relationship between the dis-
cold spots corresponding to antinodes and nodes. tance PQ and the wavelength of the
Explain why stationary Bound electrons in atoms and molecules behave like stationary waves bouncing around in the space they are wave.
waves are seen only at
certain frequencies.
restricted to by the attraction of the nuclear positive charge. The discrete energy levels that electrons can occupy
each correspond to a stationary wave pattern. Wave patterns with higher numbers of nodes correspond to higher
energy levels.

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P PRINCIPLES OF FIBRE OPTICS
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Light (or electromagnetic radiation of other frequencies) travels best through a vacuum. Its rapidly oscillating electric field
generates an oscillating magnetic field, and the changing magnetic field in turn generates another nearby oscillating elec- UNSURE

tric field. And so the wave progresses rapidly through space. WEAK
Refractive index = n =
 When the waves have to travel through matter, their progress is impeded by the electronic charges in the atoms
and molecules. Metals, which are full of freely moving electrons, just stop the wave oscillation completely.
 Many other materials absorb some or all of the light and so look coloured or even black.
 In transparent materials, like water, glass and many plastics, the waves are not stopped or absorbed, but they are
slowed down. The ratio of the speed of light in vacuum, c, to its speed in the material medium, v, is called the re-
fractive index, n, of the medium.

A fibre optic cable is made from a material that

has a critical angle of 43.8 °.
Critical Angle: When light passes from one medium (material) to another it changes speed. This is because
the speed of a wave is determined by the medium through which it is passing. 1. Calculate the refractive index for this
When light speeds up as it passes from one material to another, the angle of refraction is bigger than the material.
angle of incidence. For example, this happens when light passes from water to air or from glass to water.

When the angle of refraction is equal to 90°, the angle of incidence is called the critical angle,
At any angle of incidence greater than the critical angle, the light cannot pass through the surface - it is all
reflected.
This is called total internal reflection.
Total because all of the energy is reflected.
Internal because the energy stays inside the material.
Make sure you can use Reflection because the light is reflected.
the equations on this
page to calculate
refractive index and
critical angle.
The relationship between critical angle and refractive index is

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P OPTICAL FIBRES (I)
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Optical fibres are very long thin cylinders of glass or, sometimes, plastic. Light is fed into the cut end of the fibre, so when it hits the sides of the fibre, it al-
most always does so at angles greater than the critical angle. That means all the rays of light get totally internally reflected and keep bouncing down the UNSURE

length of the fibre. WEAK

 No wave energy gets lost through the walls of the fibre, although as glass is not perfectly transparent, some is gradually absorbed.
 This makes light in optical fibres a much more efficient way of transmitting signals than sending electrical pulses down copper cables. Copper cables
suffer from quite large losses due to electrical resistance, meaning that after a few hundred metres most of the signal has been attenuated away and
amplifiers are needed to boost it up again.

Fibre Optics in Medicine

 Endoscopes are optical instruments with long tubes that Each fibre in the bundle is as thin as a human hair and consists
can be inserted into a body organ through an opening of:
such as the throat, nose, ear canals or anus.  a core
 These allow a trained medical practitioner to see inside a  cladding
body organ, for example, the upper oesophagus and  protective plastic buffer coating
stomach or the colon and intestines, without undertak- The image transmitted is pixelated (i.e. formed of coloured
ing surgery. dots), since each fibre only transmits one pixel of coloured light.
 Endoscopes are also used during keyhole surgery to So the resolution of the image depends on the number of fibres
guide the use of surgical instruments with remote han- in the bundle.
dling, which are often incorporated into the same tube
system.
1. Give one use of fibre optics in medicine.

2. Explain why there is total internal reflec-

tion in an optical fibre.

3. A technician who is using the endoscope

accidentally bends the optical fibres to a
very sharp angle. The optical fibres do
not crack or break. He notices that the
brightness of the light leaving the opti-
cal fibres is reduced. Explain why the
brightness of the light is reduced.
Make sure you can
clearly explain how an
endoscope works.

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Analogue Signals Digital Signals WEAK

 the electrical signals made by a microphone, which mim-  Digitising information not only makes it possible to send
ic the shape and intensity of the sound waves they are more data faster than using analogue transmission. It
detecting also makes the transmission much more reliable and
 the position of the pointer on a pressure dial gauge interference free.
 the waveform displayed on a cathode ray oscilloscope,  Converting a signal from analogue to digital is carried out
KEYWORDS
which copies and shows the variation of an AC voltage electronically using an analogue to digital (A to D) con-
with time. verter. Analogue signal – a signal whose strength
is proportional to the quantity it is repre-
senting.
Digital signal – conveys in binary code a
number that represents the size of the
measured quantity.
Fibre optic broadband networks
Broadband is used as a relative term to indicate the speed and
carrying capacity of a data channel.
In connection with the internet it has been used to market the
improvement from earlier telephone dial up connections, which
were very limited and slow. Fibre optic broadband has been pro-
gressively replacing copper cable connections with consequent 1. The refractive index of the optical fibre
gains in data speed. is 1.48 The speed of light in air is ap-
proximately 3x108 m/s Calculate the
Multimode fibre is the standard fibre cable used for sending
optical signals over short to medium distances – for example, speed of light in the optical fibre.
connections to instruments, jumpers in cabinets, small local area 2. Optical fibres use digital signals for com-
networks
munication. Digital signals are clear and
Single mode fibre has an even narrower core (8 μm to10 μm), of high quality. They can carry a lot of
which is less than ten wavelengths of the infra-red light that is data. Explain one other advantage of
used in them. This means there is just no space for different using digital signals in long distance
beams travelling at different angles down the core. Instead, the communication.
light wave moves as a single wave-front straight down the centre
Recap the properties of the fibre, and all the signal energy reaches the far end of the
of analogue and digital fibre at the same instant. Millions of kilometres of this high quali-
signals from GCSE.
ty cable is laid every year to build the fibre optic networks for
telephone, cable TV and broadband internet communications.

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P ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum
Light, and all forms of electromagnetic radiation, travel at the same speed SECURE
through vacuum: 2.997 925x108 ms-1. This is a physical constant value that is UNSURE
usually denoted by the letter, c.
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Inverse square law for intensity of a wave

Waves transfer energy, and energy is a quantity that is always conserved.
Wave-fronts propagating out from a point or a spherical source will them-
selves be spherical.
As each wave-front increases in radius it also increases in area. The formula
for the surface area of a sphere of radius r is 4πr2. The energy in the moving
wave-front is distributed over that expanding area, and so its intensity de-
creases accordingly:

I=
where I is intensity of wave, k is a constant and r is distance from source.

There are frequencies just above your visible range that can You can sense frequencies just a
Your eyes can only detect a
be seen by bees and some other animals, which help plants little lower than that of red light
very small range of frequen-
grow and which cause sunburn. These are ultra-violet light as radiant heat warming you.
cies. These are visible light.
(UV), because the frequencies are above those of violet These are infra-red radiation (IR).

1. Compare the use of mobile phones, Blue-

The remaining types of radiation are named according to how they are produced. At the highest frequencies the frequency ranges
for X-rays and for γ-rays (gamma rays) overlap somewhat. X-rays are produced by high energy atomic electron transitions and are tooth® and Wi-Fi in communications.
just a higher energy version of light and UV radiation. On the other hand, γ-rays come from nuclear disintegrations and from colli- Your answer should include reference to their
sions between high energy sub-atomic particles.
uses, frequencies and range.

Applications of EM Spectrum:

Satellite communication

Mobile phones

Bluetooth
Review page 82 of the Wifi
textbook for applica-
tions of EM waves. 2. Determine how the intensity at Y, IY , com-
Infrared
pares with the intensity at X, IX .

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Sample Exam Papers EXAM DATE:
Monday 5th June 2016,
9:00am, 1h 30m

Now that you have completed your revision it is time to try some
sample exam questions. Attached with this booklet you will find
two sample exam papers from BTEC. Spend 1 hour 30 minutes on
each paper. Good luck!

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