FLUID MECHANICS

First Year Mech & Aero Programme

Lecture 8
Introduction to fluid dynamics

Prof Shan Zhong

shan.zhong@manchester.ac.uk
 Objectives of this lecture
• To understand the classifications of fluid flows
• To acquire some understanding of the Reynolds
number
• To know the differences between streamline,
streakline and pathline

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 Fluid dynamics
• Dealing with the behaviour of fluids in motion
(governed by the mass, energy and momentum
conservation laws)
– How pressure and velocity vary in the flow
– How to calculate forces exerted by a moving fluid
– Sub-disciplines
• Aerodynamics
• hydrodynamics

p1 p2
u1 u2
A1 A
2

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 Description of fluid motion
• In a flow field, each fluid property (V, p, or ρ) has a
definite value at every point in space and is a
continuous function of position and time, i.e.
Q = f(x, y, z, t)

y
x

• Often the flow is three-dimensional and unsteady.

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 Classification of fluid flows
• Steady versus unsteady flow
• One, two and three-dimensional flows
• Compressible versus incompressible flow
• Laminar versus turbulent flow
• Viscous versus inviscid flow

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 Steady versus unsteady flow
• Unsteady flow: the flow condition at a given point
changes with time, i.e.
Q = f(x, y, z, t)
• Example: Fluid discharged from a container.

Jet velocity at a chosen cross

section decreases as water level
in the container decreases.
Small container

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 Steady versus unsteady flow
• Steady flow: flow parameters, Q, at any point in the
flow do not vary with time, i.e. ∂∂Qt = 0

Q = f(x, y, z, t) Q = f(x, y, z)
• Example: flow over the wings of an aircraft at cruise

– Velocity may still change with locations.

– A flow whose parameters do not change with locations is
called uniform flow.
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 Steady versus unsteady flow
• Whether a given flow is described as steady or
unsteady will depend upon the frames of reference.

y
x

The flow over an aircraft at cruise is steady to passenger

on the plane but unsteady to an observer on the ground.

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 Three-dimensional flows
• For a three-dimensional flow
– Flow velocity depends on the 3 spatial coordinates.
– Flow velocity vectors have 3 velocity components.
y
u = u ( x,
z
y, z )
x
v = v ( x, y, z )
w = w ( x, y, z )

y z
Flow around a circular
x cylinder on a wall
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 Two-dimensional flows
• For a two-dimensional flow
– Flow velocity depends on 2 spatial coordinates.
– Flow velocity vectors have 2 velocity components.
– Velocity field is identical on planes parallel to x-y plane
u = u ( x, y )
v = v ( x, y )

y
y
z x
z
Flow around the middle
x section of a long wing w=0.
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 One-dimensional flows
• For an one-dimensional flow
– Flow velocity depends on 1 spatial coordinate.
– Flow velocity has 1 velocity component.
u = u (x )
• Example 1: Flow in a circular pipe far from
entrance (fully developed flow)

u(r)
The velocity profile
only varies with r

Velocity profile does change with z.

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 One-dimensional flows
• Example 2: Flow in a diverging channel

y y

y
x x

2D flow since velocity changes Simplified as 1D flow by

both with x and y, i.e. u=u(x,y) assuming uniform velocity
across each section, i.e. u=u(x)

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 Short problem 1
• 2D or 3D flow?

Mid- section of
a long cylinder

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Incompressible versus compressible flow
• A fluid flow is called incompressible flow when its
density is essentially constant.
• A fluid flow can be treated as incompressible when its
density changes less than 5%.
– For an air flow with negligible heat transfer, it can be
regarded as incompressible when its velocity is less than
100m/s.
• Compressibility is very important for high-speed flows.

y
x

Incompressible flow Compressible flow

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 Effect of viscosity
• No-slip condition

wall
V fluid ≡ 0
Friction force fluid exerted on wall

• A velocity profile develops in the near-wall region.

• The near-wall region, where a viscous interaction
between consecutive layers of fluid occurs, is called
the boundary layer.
• The wall experiences a friction force which acts in the
flow direction.
• A portion of the energy of the fluid is dissipated by the
viscous effect and lost as heat. 16
 Viscous and inviscid flow
• Flows in which the effect of viscosity are significant
are called viscous flows.
• Idealised flows of zero-viscosity are called inviscid
flows.
• In flows where the effects of viscosity is small
(such as the flow far away from a solid surface or
no considerable flow separation), the flow can be
assumed to be inviscid for simplicity in analysis.

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 Laminar versus turbulent flow
• Laminar flow
– Smooth and orderly motion
• Turbulent flow
– Chaotic motion
• Different theories are required to describe their
behaviour.
Orderly laminar
flow

Flow over a Chaotic

curved wall turbulent flow

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 Reynolds’ experiment
• Osborne Reynolds (1842 –1912)

• Reynolds’ pipe flow experiment (1883)

Dye viz pattern observed

Laminar flow

Turbulent flow

– When Re <2300, the flow is laminar flow: It is the critical

Reynolds number for pipe flows. 19
 Reynolds number
• Definition of Reynolds number
Drag coefficient of circular cylinder
ρUL
Re =
µ

– ρ : fluid density
– U : freestream velocity
– L : characteristic length of the flow
– µ : viscosity coefficient
• The characteristics length of the flow
– The pipe diameter
– The chord length of an aerofoil
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 Reynolds number
• Re is a dimensionless parameter.
• It can be interpreted as a ratio of inertia force to
viscous force, i.e.
ρ ∞V∞ c Inertial _ force
Re = ∝
µ∞ Viscous _ force
– Laminar flow occurs at low Re where viscous forces are
dominant smooth and ordered fluid motion.
– Turbulent flow occurs at high Re where inertia forces are
dominant flow instabilities and chaotic fluid motion.

Orderly laminar
flow

Flow over a Chaotic

curved wall turbulent flow
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 Reynolds Number
• Typical Reynolds numbers of moving objects
ρUL
Re =
µ

Microorganisms Jelly fish Birds Jet aircraft

Re << 1 Re =200 ~ 300 Re=104 ~ 105 Re > 108

– When Re << 1, viscous effect is so strong that jet

propulsion mechanism is ineffective.
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 Short problem 2
• Assuming that the critical Reynolds number of the
flow in a circular pipe is 2300, obtain the critical
velocity when the water or air is flowing in a pipe of
diameter 1cm.
• At 20oC
ρwater=1000 kg/m3 , ρair=1.2 kg/m3
µwater=10-3 Pa s , µair=1.8x10-5 Pa s

(Answers: 0.23m/s, 3.45m/s)

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Solution

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 Flow visualization techniques
• To make the flow patterns visible and to get
qualitative or quantitative information about the flow
• Often requiring an introduction of small tracer
particles, i.e. smoke, dye, into the flow and an
adequate light source
Flow
• To understand the flow patterns, it is important to
introduce the definitions of
– Streamline
– Streakline
– Pathline

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 Streamlines
• A streamline is a curve on which the tangent at each
point indicates the direction of fluid at that point.

A snap shot of many particles

Streamlines obtained by drawing curves

following the flow trace revealed by
aluminium powder suspended in water

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 Streamtube
• Since the velocity vector is tangential to the streamline,
there is no flow which crosses the streamline.
• A stream tube
A stream tube can be formulated by
drawing the streamlines passing
through all points on a closed curve

Since NO fluid comes in or goes out through the

stream tube wall, the fluid appears as if it were
flowing through a solid tube.

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 Streaklines
• A streakline is the line formed by a series of fluid
particles which passed a certain point in the stream
one after another.

Formed by many particles

emitted from the same
point

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 Pathlines
• The pathline is the trajectory of a particular
fluid particle.

The trajectory
of one particle

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 Steady flow
• In a steady flow, the velocity magnitude and direction
do not change with time at any point in the flow field.
– Streamline, streakline and pathline coincide with each
other.
Streaklines produced
by smoke injected
upstream through an
array of orifices

• Flow is steady in this

region,
• Streaklines are the same
to streamlines.

• Flow is unsteady in this region

due to periodic vortex shedding.
• Streaklines, streamlines and
pathlines do not coincide.
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 Next lecture
• Materials to be taught in the next lecture
– The Mass conservation law

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