Building Materials and Construction Technology

Module I: Introduction

 Classification of materials,
 Building materials symbols,
 Requirements of building materials and products:
functional, aesthetical and economical
Building is defined as any structure for whatsoever purpose
and of whatsoever materials constructed and every part
thereof whether used as human habitation or not and broadly
speaking, consists of three parts, namely (i) Foundation, (ii)
Plinth, and (iii) Superstructure.

Any material which is used in construction of residential or

commercial buildings is dubbed as building material.

 The choice of building material depends on :

 the size and nature of building,
 its design,
 intended purposes,
 availability of resources
 location.
Building Materials/ Materials of Construction
(A) Rocks, Soils, Stones and Aggregates
(B) Clay products
(C) Limes
(D) Cements
(E) Mortars
(F) Concrete
(G) Timber and Timber products
(H) Miscellaneous materials
[metals, glass, plastic, gypsum, Plaster of Paris,
Bitumens, Asbestos, Adhesive, Heat Insulating
Materials (quilt, rock wool), Sound Insulating Materials]
 (A) Rocks, Soils, Stones and Aggregates

Rock :
 It is a hard and compact natural aggregate of mineral
grains cemented by strong more or less permanent
bonds.
 Easily, one of the most solid and durable material used in
constructions,
 Rock is a very dense material so it gives a lot of
protection too.
 Rocks form the best foundation surface for
buildings.
 Physical Characteristics:
Stratified rocks show distinct layers along which the rocks can be split. The
examples are sandstone, limestone, shale, slate, marble, etc.

Unstratified rocks do not show any stratification and cannot be easily split
into thin layers. The examples of such rocks are granite, basalt, trap, etc.

Foliated rocks have a tendency to split up only in a definite direction. Most

of the metamorphic rocks have a foliated structure, except for quartzite
and marble which have granulose structure.

Chemical Characteristics:
Argillaceous: The principal constituent is clay (Al2O3). The rocks are hard
and brittle, e.g. slate, laterite, etc.

Silicious: The principal constituent is silica (SiO2), i.e. sand. The rocks are
very hard and durable, e.g. granite, basalt, trap, quartzite, gneiss, syenite,
etc.

Calcarious: The principal constituent is lime, e.g. lime stone, marble,

dolomite, etc.
Soil:

- From engineering standpoint, the soil is natural aggregates of

mineral grains formed by the disintegration or decomposition of
rocks.

- Loose or moderately cohesive

- Inorganic or organic in nature

- It has the Capacity of being separated by simple mechanical

process, e.g., by agitation in water

- The engineering properties and behavior of soil are

influenced by the change in moisture content and density or
compactness of soil.
 Soil

Non-Cohesive soils/ Cohesionless soils Cohesive soils

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand

Building Stones:

- All those classes of natural rocks, rather pieces of rocks, which are
finished in small building units for masonry Construction, are termed as
building stones.

Example: Limestone, sandstone, marbles, granites etc.

- These stones are used in building construction for foundations, walls

footings etc.

- Mostly Stone buildings can be seen in most major cities, some

civilizations are built entirely with stone.
Aggregates:

- These are mineral aggregates which are either obtained

from natural resources or produced artificially and may be
crushed or uncrushed, viz, stone, gravel, sand, blast
furnace slag, furnace clinker etc.

Coarse aggregate: stones, gravels, boulders

- Mainly used in production of concrete

Fine aggregate: Sand such as natural sand, crushed gravel

sand or such other inert materials
-Used in preparing mortar, plaster, etc in addition to its wide
application in the production of concrete.
(B) Clay Products

-Clay is a distinct product of chemical weathering of igneous

rocks and hence occurs plenty in nature.

- Clay when moistened possesses a high degree of tenacity

and plasticity.

- Such clay when moulded in desired shapes, and then dried

and burnt gives rise to various products used in building
industry.

- Some major products are bricks, tiles, terracota,

earthenwares, stonewares.
Clay bricks:
-It is like an artificial stone obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks
of uniform size (19 cm x 9 cm x 9 cm) and then by drying and burning these
blocks.
Heavy Duty bricks:
- Used in heavy construction engineering works such as bridge structure,
Industrial foundations, machine foundations, multi-storied buildings, etc.

Common Burnt Clay bricks:

- According to Indian Standard, bricks shall be hand or machine moulded,
allowance being made for shrinkage in drying and burning. These bricks
shall be used for common building purposes and should be free from
cracks and flaws and nodules of free lime..

Hollow bricks (Cellular or Cavity Bricks):

- These are light weight bricks with cavities, made from special
homogeneous clay. Such bricks have wall thickness of about 20 to 25 mm
and are used for partition walls. They also provide good insulation against
heat, sound and dampness.
Perforated bricks:
-These bricks are light in weight and contain perforations, may be circular,
square, elliptical, rectangular or any other shape in cross section,
throughout their thickness.
- These bricks are economical and offer adequate insulation against heat.
- These bricks are used for the construction of brick panels for light weight
structures, multistoried framed structures, decorative partition walls. Grill
work, etc.

Fire bricks (or, Refractory Bricks):

-These are made from fire clay like ordinary clay bricks.
-These bricks can resist high temperatures and are used for lining of
furnaces and construction of boilers, chambers, chimneys, etc.

Soda-Lime bricks:
-These bricks are prepared by mixing, moulding and treating the four raw
materials, i.e. sand, lime, water and pigment.
- They are either used as ordinary clay bricks in building industry or for
ornamental work, being better in appearance.
 Heavy Duty bricks Common Burnt Clay bricks

Hollow bricks (Cellular or Cavity Bricks) Perforated bricks

Tiles:
-Like bricks, they are also manufactured by moulding the prepared clay
and then by drying and burning, but they are made thinner for lightness
and larger in size to have few joints.
-So tiles have larger tendency to crack and wrap while drying and burning
than bricks.

Common Tiles: These tiles are used for common purposes like roofing
(roof-tiles), flooring (floor-tiles) and drains (drain-tiles), in building industry.

Encaustic Tiles: These are multi-coloured glazed tiles prepared by mixing

colouring substances in the clay before drying and burning. These tiles are
largely used for paving and for decoration of walls, floors, etc.

Patent Tiles (or, Interlocking Roof Tiles): These are the varieties of
interlocking type roof tiles, used for pitched roofs and have been patented
by some companies in India.
- These tiles are generally rectangular in plan, with surface corrugations so
arranged that the corrugations of tile or tiles fit (or interlock) with those of
other tiles. Allahabad and Raniganj roofing tiles, Mangalore tiles etc. are
popular in India.
Terracotta:
-It is a kind of earthenware, made from superior clay (or, refractory earth) by
burning.
-Hollow terracotta blocks are used as a substitute of stone in ornamental parts of
building such as facing work, arches, wall copings, window sills, casing for columns,
bases of pillars, etc.
-Porous terracotta, which is fire resisting material, can be used for the floor of
terrace.
-Hard-fired varieties of terracotta are best suited as a covering for steel framed
structures.

Earthenware:
- It means wares or articles prepared from clay which is burnt at low temperature
and cooled down slowly.
- Glazed earthen wares are not affected by acids or atmospheric agencies.
- Terracotta is a kind of earthenware.

Stoneware:
- It means the wares or articles prepared from a mixture of refractory clay, stone and
crushed pottery which are burnt at high temperature and then cooled down slowly.
- Stone wares are largely used for making sanitary articles such as wash basins,
sewer pipes, glazed tiles, water closets, gully traps, etc.
 Common Tiles

Encaustic Tiles

Patent Tiles (or, Interlocking Roof Tiles) Terracotta Jallys

(C) Limes
-It is not generally found in free state. Lime is a product obtained by burning
lime stones, a raw material, found in lime stone hills or lime stone boulders
in the beds of old rivers, kankar found below ground, or shells of sea
animals.
-Lime in building industry is used for various purposes such as a matrix for
lime concrete used in building foundations and filling where early setting is
not required.
- It is also used for preparing mortar for bedding bricks and stones in
masonry works, as a cementing material in plaster for covering walls and
pointing in preserving joints, and for white washing , etc.

Quick Lime (or Caustic Lime): It is obtained by calcinations (i.e., heating

to redness) of comparatively pure lime stones. It is amorphous in nature,
highly caustic and possesses great affinity to moisture.

Slaked Lime (or Hydrate Lime): It is obtained by slaking (i.e. chemical

combination of quick lime with water) of quick lime.
-It is ordinary pure lime, in white powder form, available in market.
- It has got the tendency of absorbing carbonic acid from the atmosphere
in presence of water.
Hydraulic lime (or Water Lime): The lime contains clay and some amount
of ferrous oxide. It sets under water and hence also known as water lime.
-Depending upon the percentage of clay, I.S.I. has divided hydraulic lime in
three classes:

• Class A (Eminently Hydraulic Lime): This lime contains about 25% clay
content and sets readily under water within a day or so.
-- This lime slakes with difficulty.
-- The mortar and lime concrete prepared from this lime is very useful for
construction under water or in damp places.

• Class B (Semi-Hydraulic or Moderately Hydraulic Lime): It contains about

15% clay content and sets under water at a slower rate within a week or so.
-The mortar and concrete prepared from this lime is strong and used for
superior type of masonry work.

• Class C (Non-Hydraulic or Fat Lime): The lime contains about 75% of clay
content and is prepared from pure lime stone.
- This slakes vigorously within few minutes but does not set under water.
- This is used for white-washing and colour washing.
(D) Cements

(E) Mortars:
Lime Mortar, Cement Mortar,
Gauged Mortar (or, Combination Mortar), Surkhi Mortar
(F) Concrete:
Lime Mortar, Cement Mortar,
Gauged Mortar (or, Combination Mortar), Surkhi Mortar
(G) Timber and Timber products

(H) Miscellaneous materials

metals, glass, plastic, gypsum, Plaster of Paris, Bitumens, Asbestos,
Adhesive, Heat Insulating Materials (quilt, rock wool), Sound Insulating
Materials]
Building materials symbols
 Module 2 Manufacturing Process and Properties of
Basic Construction Materials

2.1 Building Stones and Aggregates

- Building stones are obtained from rocks occurring in nature. It is
estimated that three-fourth of the land area of the globe is underlain by
sedimentary rocks and the remaining one-fourth by igneous and
metamorphic rocks.

-The various stones derived from these types of rocks are as follows:
(a) Principle stones from igneous rocks: Granite, Basalt and Trap
(b) Principle stones from sedimentary rocks: Sand stone, Lime stone
and Laterite.
(c) Principle stones from metamorphic rocks: Quartzite, Schist, Slate,
Marble and Gneiss.
Properties or Requirements of Good Building Stone:
A good building stone should possess several characteristics such as,

- high strength (crushing strength > 1000 kg/cm2),

- high durability, sufficient hardness (coefficient of hardness > 14),
-high resistance to wear and good fire resistance,
- sp gravity more than 2.7, crystalline structure,
- high impact value (toughness index > 13)
- Low water absorption (%absorption after 24 hrs less than 0.6)
- Facility for carving and dressing
-Weather resistance and better appearance
- Generally stones from igneous and metamorphic rocks are heavier and
more durable than stones from sedimentary rocks.
 Quarrying of Stones
-It is the art of extracting stones from natural rock beds for engineering
purposes.
-The quarrying site should be selected after considering various aspects
such as:
• Quantity and quality of available stones
• Distance of quarry from roads, railways, sea coast, etc
• Possibility of drainage from the quarry pit,
• Available slope for positioning of the crushers and cutting and
dressing of rocks
• Geological data of rock formations, etc.
- Sides of hills, are most suitable sites for quarrying purposes as the rocks
are of higher density and available at the surface.
Methods of quarrying:
Depending upon the natural rock and the purposes for which stone
is to be used, the process of quarrying can be performed by any of
the following methods.

1. Digging by hand tools

2. Heating
3. Wedging
4. Blasting

5. Digging by hand tools:

- This method is adopted when soft stones occur in the form of
detached modules or blocks buried in earth.
- In this method, stones are dug out with crowbars or pickaxes
from the bed of sea during low tides.

pickaxe crowbar
2. Heating:

- This method of splitting the rocks by heating is used

when small blocks of more or less regular shape are
desired to be taken out from quarry.
- In this method, the pieces of wood leaves or any type
of fuel are kept on the surface of stone.
- Fuel is burnt continuously for few hours. Due to
unequal expansion, stones crack with a dull bursting
sound.
- Stone pieces formed are finally taken out by means of
crowbar.
- This method is suitable when rock formation consists
of horizontal layers of small thickness.
3. Wedging:

- This method of splitting the rocks is adopted for quarrying

sedimentary and soft rocks such as sandstones, lime
stones, marbles, slates, etc.

- In this method, if rock surface contains fissures or cracks,

steel wedges or steel points are driven through such cracks
by means of hammers. Blocks of stones are then shifted by
crowbars.

- If natural fissures do not exist, artificial cracks are made.

To achieve this, a line of holes is drilled along the rock
surface at regular short intervals in the required directions,
and plugs and feathers are inserted, then finally struck
simultaneously to produce cracks with hammer.
Steel wedge

Use of plugs and feathers

4. Blasting:
- This method is adopted for quarrying hard and compact
stones, having no fissures or cracks.
- In this process, explosives are used to convert rocks into
small pieces of stones. The process of blasting involves the
following four operations:
(i) Boring holes in rock: The pattern of holes is decided so as to give
the most effective blast.
- The hole, in general, should be little away from the working face of
the rock and be taken up to the depth of the line of least resistance.
- A knife edged steel bar known as jumper is generally used for drilling
holes. A pneumatic or percussion drilling machine can also be used
for this purpose.
- Small quantity of water is added at intervals to make the rock softy
and to convert dust into paste.
Process of blasting
 (ii) Charging holes with explosives:
- After drilling holes to desired depth, they are cleaned and dried by rotating a
small iron rod with a rag tied at its end.
- These cleaned holes are now charged with one of the explosives, such as gun-
powder, dynamite, nitroglycerine, blasting gelatin, etc.
- Dynamite is generally used for this purpose being more powerful and suitable
under both dry and wet conditions.

(iii) Tamping:
- The remaining depth of hole above the explosive is completely filled with a
specially prepared sand, clay or powdered stone which is firmly rammed by a
brass tamping bar.

(iv) Firing of explosive:

- For this purpose, a fuse is inserted in the hole to form a link between the fuse at top
projecting (about 15 to 20 cm) and charge of explosive at the bottom. Detonators
are used in case dynamite is used as an explosive.
- The free end of the fuse is finally fired either with a match or with electricity.
- The disintegrated blocks are then collected and transported to the desired site.
Dressing of stones:
- It is a process in which the stone surfaces specifically the facing are
prepared to a form fit to be used for any construction work.

- Dressing is carried out either manually with the help of hand hammers,
chisels and axes or by using machines.

- The dressing of stone is done in quarry itself, because freshly quarried

stones contain some moisture called quarry sap which keeps them
softer thereby enabling them to be easily worked.

- This results in economy due to reduced weight of dressed blocks and

handling costs. Thus dressing of stones:
- gives the desired shape to stones,
- reduces the mortar joint width, and
- improves the appearance of stone surface
Suitability of types of stone for engineering works:
- On the basis of properties or characteristics of the different stones,
their suitability for engineering works is as follows:

(i) Compact sand stones and granites are suitable for buildings in a
manufacturing town, i.e., industrial city
(ii) Granite and fire-granited sand stones are suitable for buildings
situated on sea shore.
(iii) Granites and gneisses are suitable for bridge abutments and piers,
docks and breakwaters.
(iv) Granite and basalt are suitable for paving works.
(v) Sand stones, compact lime stones and quartzite are suitable for
railway ballast.
(vi) Compact sandstones are suitable for structures where fire
resistance is main requirement.
 2.2 Structural Clay Products: Bricks, Tiles
- The clay products which are largely employed in building industry for
different purposes are Bricks, Tiles, Terracotta, etc.

(I) Bricks

 Composition of Good Brick Earth:

- For preparation of bricks, brick earth is first moulded to the desired shape
and then moulded bricks are dried and burnt.
- This brick earth mainly consists of a mixture of clay and sand (i.e.,
alumina and silica) in such proportions so as to render plastic state when
mixed with water.
- Some other ingredients such as lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, etc. are
also added to this mixture so as to dry the moulded bricks without
shrinkage, cracking or wraping.
 Main ingredients of a good brick earth and their functions are as
follows:
1. Alumina: It is the chief constituent of every clay. This constituent readily
absorbs water and imparts plasticity to the clay so that it can be properly
moulded.
- A good brick earth should contain about 20 to 30% of alumina. However,
the excess of alumina in clay makes the brick liable to shrink and wrap
during drying and burning.

2. Silica: It exists in clay either as free or combined constituent. As free

sand (silica), it is mechanically mixed with clay and in combined form, it
exists in chemical composition with alumina as silicate of alumina.
- The presence of this constituent prevents the bricks from shrinkage,
cracking, wraping and undue hardness.
- A good brick earth should contain about 50 to 60% of silica. However, the
excess of silica destroys the cohesion and makes the bricks brittle and
useless.
3. Lime: The presence of small quantity of lime is desirable. It prevents the
raw bricks from shrinkage, enables the sand to fuse (or melt) during
burning and binds the particles of brick together.
- Lime should be present in a finely powdered state and not in lump form.
However, the excess of lime causes the brick to melt and lose its shape.
4. Oxide of iron: A small quantity of this helps as lime to fuse sand during
burning and also binds the particles of brick together giving hardness and
strength.
- It imparts red color to bricks and the excess of this oxide makes the brick
dark blue.
5. Magnesia: A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth gives rise to yellow
tint to bricks and decreases shrinkage. But excess of magnesia results in
the decay of bricks.

Harmful ingredients in brick earth: The presence of the following

ingredients is undesirable in brick earth.

1. Lime: The adverse effects of excess lime and lime in form of lumps
have already been discussed.
2. Iron Pyrites: If iron pyrites are present in brick earth as impurity, the
bricks are crystallized and disintegrated (or decomposed) during the
process of burning.
3. Alkalies: The presence of alkalies (in the form of soda and potash) in
excess acts as a flux during burning and thereby causes bricks to fuse,
twist and wrap. As a result, bricks get melted and they lose their shapes.
- Moreover, when such bricks are used in masonry work, they absorb
moisture from the air. Such moisture when gets evaporated during drying,
leaves behind grey or white deposits on the wall surface. This is known
as efflorescence and spoils the overall appearance of the building.
4. Pebbles, Gravel or Grits: The presence of pebbles, or gravel or grits
(small particles of stone) of any kind in brick earth are harmful as they do
not allow the brick earth to be mixed thoroughly. Bricks containing grits
crack do not break in regular shapes.
5. Organic matter or Vegetation: The presence of organic matter in brick
earth adds to the intensity of fire. But if such matter is not completely
burnt, it will make the brick s porous in nature.
 Manufacturing of Bricks: The manufacturing of bricks involves the
following four distinct operations:
1. Preparation of brick clay or brick earth
2. Moulding
3. Drying, and
4. Burning
5. Preparation of brick clay or brick earth: The preparation of clay or
earth for bricks involves the following six operations in order:
(i) Unsoiling: In this operation, the top surface of site, from which the
brick earth or clay is to be taken out, is stripped off to a depth of about
20 cm. This is done to remove the impurities, organic matter, etc. in top
soil.
(ii) Digging: After unsoiling, the clay is dug out and laid on levelled
ground a little below the general surface.
(iii) Cleaning: In this operation, the dug out clay is cleaned of impurities
such as stones, pebbles, vegetable matter, etc. Lumps of clay should
be reduced to powder form.
(iv) Weathering: The cleaned earth is spread in 60 cm to 120 cm thick
layers for exposure to weather for a few month.
(v) Blending: This is the process of intimate mixing of the clay, sand and
other materials required for a good brick earth.
-The process is carried out by taking small brick clay portion every time
and by turning it up and down in vertical direction.

(vi) Tempering: After preparing clay as above, clay is then tempered by

being thoroughly broken up, watered, kneaded (or pressed) under the feet
of men or cattle till it becomes a homogeneous mass.
- It is then covered up with mats and allowed to dry slowly till it is soft
enough for moulding.
- For manufacturing of good bricks on a large scale, tempering is usually
done in a pug mill. Process of grinding clay with water and making it
plastic is known as pugging.
-The iron-tube has an upright shaft (i.e. vertical shaft) passing through its
center. A number of horizontal blades are fixed to the shaft and blades
carry numerous steel knives.
- This vertical shaft carrying blades with knives can be rotated either by
bullocks on arms or by mechanical power.
- Clay and water are fed into mill from the top. As the shaft revolves,
blades churn the clay, while the knives knead the clay.
-The tempered clay in plastic state is collected at bottom of tub through an
opening with ramp. This tempered clay is used for moulding of bricks.

2. Moulding: The clay prepared is moulded in the following two ways.

(i) Hand Moulding (popular in India), (ii) Machine moulding

(i) Hand Moulding: The moulding of bricks with hand, using standard
moulds of wood or wrought iron, may be done either on ground on table
and accordingly the bricks are known as ground moulded bricks or table
moulded bricks.
- For hand moulding, the clay is forced in the mould in such a way that it
fills all the corners of mould. Extra or surplus clay is removed either by
wooden strike or metal strike or frame with wire. Mould is then lifted up
and raw brick is left on the ground.
- Process is repeated till sufficient raw bricks are ready. When such
bricks become sufficiently dry, they are carried and placed in drying
sheds.
- Bricks prepared by dipping mould in water every time are known as slop
moulded bricks.
- If fine sand or ash is sprinkled on inside surface of the mould instead of
dipping mould in water, then bricks so prepared are known as sand-
moulded bricks. These bricks have sharp and straight edges.

N.B. Inside dimensions 21 x 10 x 10 cm are for bricks of size 19 x 9 x 9

cm so as to provide allowance for contraction in drying and burning.

- Iron moulds are used for large scale production.

- A frog or depression on the brick is made during moulding to serve
following two purposes:
• To indicate the trade name of manufacturer
• To develop key for mortar for bonding bricks together
N.B. Brick size: 19 x 9 x 9 cm, frog size: 6 x 4 x 1 or 2 cm.

(ii) Machine Moulding: This method of moulding can be used with

advantage when a large number of bricks are to be made at the
same spot and where clay is very hard and stony.
- Machines used for moulding are of two types
(a) Plastic clay machines (b) Dry clay machines
- If fine sand or ash is sprinkled on inside surface of the mould instead of
dipping mould in water, then bricks so prepared are known as sand-
moulded bricks. These bricks have sharp and straight edges.

N.B. Inside dimensions 21 x 10 x 10 cm are for bricks of size 19 x 9 x 9

cm so as to provide allowance for contraction in drying and burning.

- Iron moulds are used for large scale production.

- A frog or depression on the brick is made during moulding to serve
following two purposes:
• To indicate the trade name of manufacturer
• To develop key for mortar for bonding bricks together
N.B. Brick size: 19 x 9 x 9 cm, frog size: 6 x 4 x 1 or 2 cm.

(ii) Machine Moulding: This method of moulding can be used with

advantage when a large number of bricks are to be made at the
same spot and where clay is very hard and stony.
- Machines used for moulding are of two types
(a) Plastic clay machines (b) Dry clay machines
 (a) Plastic clay machines: In these machines, the pugged clay in plastic
state is forced through rectangular opening of a size equal to the length
and breadth of the brick and are then cut into strips of thickness of the brick
with wires in frames and dried as usual.

(a) Dry clay machines: In these machines, dry clay is reduced to powder,
filled dry into mould by the machine and then are subjected to a very high
pressure to form hard and well shaped bricks.

3. Drying: The main objective of drying the moulded bricks are as follows:

(i) If damp or green bricks are directly taken for next operation of burning,
they are likely to be cracked or distorted.
(ii) To remove maximum possible moisture from the brick so as to save
time and fuel during burning.
(iii) To increase the strength of raw bricks so that they can be handled and
stacked in greater heights in the kiln for burning without damage.
-For drying operation, the bricks are laid longitudinally in stacks of width
equal to two bricks. A stack consists of 8 to 10 tiers.
- Bricks are laid along and across the stack in alternate layers. All bricks
are placed on edge.
- Drying is usually done by placing the bricks in sheds with open sides so
as to ensure free circulation of air and protection from bad weather and
rains.
-The bricks are allowed to dry till they are left with 5 to 7% moisture
content. The drying period usually varies from 7 to 14 days.

4. Burning: It is a very important operation in the manufacturing of bricks

because of the following:
-It imparts hardness and strength to bricks and makes them dense and
durable.
- The temperature required for burning is about 1100 oC. If bricks are burnt
beyond this limit, they will be brittle (become Jhama after melting) and
easy to break.
- If bricks are under burnt, they will not gain full strength and there is a
chance to absorb moisture from the atmosphere. Hence, they will be soft
and unsuitable for carrying the expected loads when used.
- Bricks may be burnt by two distinctive methods give below:
A. Burning in a clamp or Pazawah known as clamp burning
B. Burning in a flame kiln or Bhatta known as Kiln burning

C. Clamp Burning
- In this method, a sloped floor of trapezoidal shape is prepared at an
angle about 15º with a shorter end little below the ground and wider
end little above the ground.
- Now alternate layers of fuel and brick courses (4 to 5) are put and then
finally the clamp is covered with mud plastering and earth filling.
- The other details of clamp regarding fuel, fuel layers and brick courses
arrangement are shown in the figure.
- Lower portion of clamp is ignited when nearly one-third height of clamp
is reached.
- Clamp is allowed to burn for a period of about one to two months. It is
then allowed to cool for more or less the same period as burning before
taking out the bricks.
 Advantages of Clamp Burning:
- Bricks produced are tough and hard due to gradual burning and cooling
process
- It is cheap and economical.
- No skilled labour or supervision is required for construction of clamps
- There is lot of saving in fuel.

 Disadvantages of Clamp Burning:

- Bricks produced are of irregular shape due to settlement of bricks on
turning of fuel to ashes.
- It is a slow process and flame regulation is not possible.
- Quality of bricks is not uniform. Bricks at bottom are found over burnt,
while at top and sides are found to be under burnt.

B. Kiln Burning
- Kilns (or large ovens) used for burning of bricks are divided into two
groups as below:
(i) Intermittent Kilns or Periodic Kilns
(ii) Continuous Kilns
(i) Intermittent Kilns or Periodic Kilns
- In these kilns, various operations, such as loading, firing, cooling
and unloading occur periodically and hence are termed as
intermittent or periodic kilns.
- Such kilns are either rectangular or circular in plan and are made
either over ground or underground.
- From viewpoint of burning bricks with hot gases, these kilns are
divided into two classes:
(a) Intermittent up-draught kilns, (b) Intermittent down-draught kilns

(a) Intermittent up-draught kilns: The working of these kilns is as

follows:
- Raw bricks are laid in rows of thickness equal to 2 to 2 bricks and
of height equal to 6 to 8 bricks. A space of about 2 bricks is left
between adjacent rows to accommodate fuel. Fuel is fill in the
interior portion.
- These first 4 to 5 rows of bricks are so projected as to form an arch
opening.
- Loading of bricks on edge is continued and top course is finished
with flat bricks.
- Kiln is then fired . Slow fire is kept for 3 days and then strong fire is
maintained for a period of 4 to 5 days.
- In this system of burning, draught (or hot gases) rises in the upward
direction from bottom and brings about the burning of bricks. Hence
these kilns are termed as up-draught kilns.
- Kiln is allowed to cool down and bricks are taken out fro the doors.

(b) Intermittent down-draught kilns:

- Working of these kilns is more or less similar to the up-draught kilns.
- But it is so arranged in this kiln that hot gases are carried through
vertical flues up to level of roof and then they are released.
- In doing so, hot gases move downward from top by the chimney and
bring about the burning of bricks. Hence, such kilns are termed as down-
draught kilns.