Oscillation

Oscillations are a type of periodic motion. An oscillation is usually defined as a repetitive

variation over time. Oscillation is the movement of a body from its resting place to the
maximum distance it can cover on one side to the maximum distance on the other side and
back to its resting place. The maximum distance that the body covers on either side of its
resting place is equal from its resting place and is called the amplitude or maximum
displacement. The resting point of the body is known as its equilibrium state.
Oscillation has a definite time period which means the body takes a definite time to complete
one oscillation and will remain same for all oscillations if there is no outer force working on
the system. It is known as periodic mo vement and time taken to complete one oscillation is
its frequency. A pendulum is a good example for an oscillatory motion. The oscillations are
mostly sinusoidal.
Vibration
Vibration of a body is the movement of the body about its mean position and can be linear,
circular, periodic or non periodic.
When an external force is applied to a body its atoms get displaced from their mean position
and due to their binding force tend to come back to their mean position and due to the
momentum they have gained during the motion tend to travel past their mean position to the
opposite side and this phenomena continues till friction exhausts all their energy to stop. This
movement of atoms cause vibration of a body and vibration stops when atoms come to halt at
mean position.
Difference between oscillation and vibration
Oscillation is the definite displacement of a body in terms of distance or time where as
vibration is the movement brought about in a body due to oscillation.
Oscillation takes place in physical, biological systems and often in our society but vibrations
is associated with mechanical systems only.
Oscillation of a body dissipates energy due to friction which slows it down and ultimately
ends the movement but it can be converted to a continuous one by applying external force.
Vibrations tend to end after the dissipation of all the energy of the atoms.
Oscillation of a body is used to study the nature of movement and calculations of different
energy levels during movement but vibration has a varied range of applications in the
industry.

1
 Oscillation is about a single body where as vibration is the result of collective oscillation of
atoms.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)
A particle is said to execute simple harmonic motion when it will (a) trace and retrace the same
path over and over again; (b) Change direction at regular interval of time; (c) move along a
straight line, and (d) possess the property such that the acceleration of the moving particle at any
time will be proportional to the displacement, and will be directed to the mean position of rest
(initial undisturbed position).
The particle which satisfies the condition (a) only is said to be execute periodic motion and
which satisfies conditions (a) and (b) is said to possess vibratory motion. The particle executing
SHM must satisfy all the four conditions.
The motion of the earth round the sum is periodic motion. The motion of a pendulum of a clock,
the motion of a prong of tuning fork etc. are the examples of vibratory motion.
A pendulum whose length is made large and allowed to oscillate, such that the arc of oscillation
is made so small that it approximate to straight lime is said to be a simple pendulum, that is it
executes SHM.
Let P be a particle moving on the circumference of a circle of radius 'a' with a uniform velocity
v. let  be the uniform angular velocity of the particle (v = a).

The circle along which P moves is called the circle of reference. As the particle moves round the
circle continuously with uniform velocity, the foot of the perpendicular N, vibrates along the
diameter YY/. If the motion of P is uniform, then the motion of N is periodic, i.e., it takes the
same time to vibrate once between Y and Y/. At any instant the distance of N from the centre O
or the circle is called the displacement. If the particle moved from X to P in time t, then
<POX = <NPO = θ = t
y
From the ∆NPO, sinθ = sin t =
a
So, y = a sint (1)
So, ON or y is called the displacement of the vibrating particle. The displacement of a vibration
particle at any instant can be defined as its distanced from the mean position of rest. The
maximum displacement of a vibrating particle is called its amplitude.
As y = a sin t and thus the maximum value of ymax = a (called amplitude) [as maximum value
of sint =1]
The rate of change of displacement of the vibrating particle is called velocity.
dy
So, velocity = = a cost (2)
dt
The rate of change of velocity is called the acceleration of the vibrating particle.
Acceleration = Rate of change of velocity

d dy d2y
= ( ) 2
dt dt dt
= -a2 sin t
= -2a sin t
= - 2 y (3)
The changes in the displacement, velocity and acceleration of a vibrating particle in one
complete vibration are given in the following table.
Angle Position of Displacement Velocity Acceleration
vibrating y  a sin t dy  a 2 sin t   2 y
 a cost
particle dt

0 O zero A zero

π/2 Y +a zero -a
π O Zero -a Zero

3π/2 Y/ -a zero +a
2π O zero a Zero

The time taken by the particle in executing SHM to make a complete oscillation is known as the
time period (T). The time taken by N to move from O to Y to Y to O again.
The number of oscillation per second of particle executing SHM is called frequency (n).
1
One oscillation takes place in T seconds then in one second number of oscillation n = .
T
Phase of a particle executing SHM represents the position and direction of motion of the particle
and is measured by the time of or fraction of time period which has elapsed since the particles
last passage through the mean position of rest. Epoch is the initial phase of the particle executing
SHM, at the commencement of the motion.

Graphical representation of S H M:
y  a sin t

t  2 
= a sin 2π
T
.   T  2n

Displacement-time curve.
 dy
Velocity V = = acos t
dt

Velocity time curve.

The acceleration of a particle moving with simple harmonic motion is

d2y
2
 a 2 sin t
dt

Differential equation of motion of a particle executing SHM OR Differential equation of

SHM:

For a particle vibrating simple harmonically, the general equation of displacement is,
y  a sin t    (1)

Here ‘y’ is displacement and ‘a’ is the amplitude and ‘α’ is the epoch of the vibrating particle.
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to time

 a cost   
dy
(2)
dt
dy
Here represent the velocity of the vibrating particle. Differentiating equation (2) with respect
dt
d2y
to time, 2
 a 2 sin t    but y  a sin t    .
dt
d2y
 2
  2 y
dt

d2y
Or, 2
2 y  0 (3)
dt
 d2y
Here represents the acceleration of the particle. Equation (3) represents the differential
dt 2
equation of SHM. It also shows that in any phenomenon where an equation similar to equation
(3) is obtained, the body executes simple harmonic motion.

Solution of the differential equation of motion:

The equation of motion is

d2y
2 y  0 (1)
dt 2
dy
Multiply both sides by 2 and integrate
dt

dy d 2 y dy
2 . 2   2 2 y
dt dt dt
0

2
 dy 
Or,     2 y 2  cons tan t (2)
 dt 
When there is maximum displacement y = a

 dy 
   0 at y = a (3)
 dt 
Substituting (3) in (2)

 2 a 2  cons tan t  c (4)

2
 dy 
    2a 2   2 y 2   2 a 2  y 2  
 dt 
dy
   a2  y2 (5)
dt
dy
Or,  dt , on integrating
a  y2
2

dy y
 a2  y2
 sin 1
a
 t   (6)

y  a sin(t   ) (6b)
By expanding equ (6b)
y  a sin t cos  a cos wt sin 
If at t = 0 and y = 0
0
Eqn. (6) gives sin 1  c  0 , or, c = 0.
a
Which gives y  a sin t (7)

 a 
If on the other hand, t = 0 and y = a eqn. (6)  as sin 1  
 a 2
a
sin 1 c0
a


or, c 
2
 y
or, t   sin 1 (from Eqn. (6))
2 a

 
or, y  a sin  t    a cost (8)
 2

Hence the general solution can be written as y  A cost  B sin t (9)

Where A and B are constants to be determined by boundary conditions.

Total energy of a vibrating particle:
The acceleration of a particle and hence the force acting on the particle executing simple
harmonic motion is as we know, directed towards its mean position or equilibrium position, i.e.,
opposite to the direction in which the displacement y increases. Work is, therefore, done during
the displacement of the particle. Hence, the particle possesses Potential energy (U). As the
particle also possesses velocity, it possesses Kinetic energy (K) too. Thus, the mechanical energy
E of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is partly Kinetic and partly Potential. If no
non-conservative forces, such as the force of friction act on the particle, the sum of its kinetic
energy and potential energy remains constant, or.
E = K + U = constant.
As the displacement increase, the potential energy increases and the kinetic energy decreases and
vice versa. But the total energy E (= K+U) is conserved.
Let the displacement of a particle executing simple harmonic motion at any instant be y. If the
1 2
mass of the particle be m and its velocity at that instant be v, then its kinetic energy is  mv .
2
The potential energy of the particle at the same instant is the amount of work done that must be
𝑦
done in overcoming the force through a displacement y and is given by the relation 0
𝐹. 𝑑𝑦
where F is the force required to maintain the displacement and dy is a small displacement.
Now the displacement is given by the equation: y  a sin t    ………….…(1)

d2y
Hence the acceleration dt 2 is given by

d2y
2
  a 2 sin(t   )   2 . y
dt
Then, force F = mass ×acceleration
 m 2 . y
Then, the potential energy of the particle is
𝑦 𝑦
Ignoring the minus sign in the expression
𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑚. 𝜔2 . 𝑦. 𝑑𝑦 for F, which simply shows that the
0 0
direction of the force and displacement
= 1 2 𝑚. 𝜔2 . 𝑦 2 are opposite to each other.

= 1 2 𝑚. 𝜔2 . 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼)

= 1 2 𝑘. 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼) [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝜔2 = 𝑘 𝑚 ] ………….…(2)

Now the kinetic energy,
We have y  a sin t    ………….…(1)
dy
Then,  a cos(wt   )
dt
So, the KE of the particle at that instant when the displacement is y can be expressed as
1 2
 mv
2
1
 m 2 a 2 cos 2 (t   )
2
1 2
 ka cos 2 (t   ) [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝜔2 = 𝑘 𝑚] …………(3)
2
It can be seen from equations (2) and (3) that both the potential and kinetic energies have a
1 2 1
maximum value of ka or m 2 a 2 . During the motion the potential energy as well as the
2 2
kinetic energy vary between zero to this maximum value.
Thus, the total energy is just the sum of the kinetic and potential energy and is given by
1 1
E = U + K = ka 2 sin 2 (t   )  ka 2 cos 2 (t   )
2 2
1 2
 ka …………………(4)
2
1 2
We see that the total energy, as expected, is constant and has the value ka . Thus, the total
2
energy of the system is the same as the maximum value of any one of the two forms of energy.
At the maximum displacement, the kinetic energy is zero, but the potential energy has the value
1 2
ka . At the mean position, the potential energy is zero but the kinetic energy has the value
2
1 2
ka . At any other position, the kinetic and potential energies each contribute energy whose
2
1 2
sum is always ka .
2
Graphical presentation of kinetic energy, potential energy and total energy of SHM

Fig. 1 shows the kinetic, potential and total energies as function of time.
Fig.2 shows the energies as a function of displacement.

The variation of energies for a simple pendulum is shown below.

Average kinetic energy of a vibrating particle:

The displacement of a vibrating particle is given by y  a sin t   

 a cost   
dy
v 
dt
If m is the mass of the vibrating particle, the KE at any instant
 mv  ma 2 2 cos2 t   
1 2 1

2 2
The average KE of the particle in one complete vibration
T
ma 2 2 cos2 t   dt
1 1
 
T 02

1 ma 2 2
T
2 cos2 t   dt
4 0

T

ma 2 2
T

4T  1  cos 2t   dt
0

ma 2 2  
T T
  dt   cos 2t   dt 
4T  0 0 
The average value of both a sine or cosine function for a complete cycle or a whole time period
T
cos 2t   dt  0
1
T 0
T is zero. Therefore, we have,

ma 2 2 ma 2 2 ka2
So, Average KE  .T  0  
4T 4 4

ma 2 2n 
2
or in other way , KE   ma 2 n 2 (n is the frequency of vibration)
4
The potential energy (PE) of the particle at a displacement y is given by
= 1 2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑦 2

= 1 2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼)

So, the average P.E. of the particle over a complete cycle or a whole time period T
T
ma 2 2 sin 2 t   dt
1 1
 
T 02

1 ma 2 2
T
  2 sin 2 t   dt
T 4 0

ma 2 2
T

4T  1  cos 2t   dt
0
 ma 2 2  
T T
  dt   cos 2t   dt 
4T  0 0 
T
But  cos 2t   dt  0
1
T 0

ma 2 2 ma 2 2 ka2
So, Average PE  .T  0  
4T 4 4

ma 2 2n 
2
or in other way , KE   ma 2 n 2 (n is the frequency of vibration)
4
Thus, average value of PE of the particle = average value of KE of the particle
ma 2 2 ka2
  = half of the total energy.
4 4
Problem: Compute the position of an oscillating particle when its kinetic energy and
potential energy are equal.

Solution
y  a sin t   

 sin t    
y
a

y2 a2  y2 a2  y2
So, cost     1   
a2 a2 a

a2  y2
Velocity, a cost     a
a
 a 2
 y2 
The velocity of a particle executing SHM,
dy
v   a2  y2
dt
Since the kinetic energy and potential energy of the oscillating particle are equal,
1/2 mω2(a2 − y2 ) = 1/2 mω2y2
a2 − y2 = y2
2y2 = a2
x = ±a/√2

Why would it hurt more if you snapped your hand with a ruler than with a loose spring,
even if the displacement of each system is equal?
The ruler is a stiffer system, which carries greater force for the same amount of displacement.
The ruler snaps your hand with greater force, which hurts more.
Question: A particle of mass 10Kg is performing SHM where its position is given by the
equation given below, y(t) = 3sin(5t). Find its kinetic energy at the mean position.
1
Answer: The KE at the mean position is given by K .E.  m 2 a 2
2
In this case, a = 3, m = 10Kg and ω= 5
1
K .E.  10.3 2.5 2
2
K.E = 1225 J
Describe a system in which elastic potential energy is stored.
In a car, elastic potential energy is stored when the shock is extended or compressed. In some
running shoes elastic potential energy is stored in the compression of the material of the soles of
the running shoes. In pole vaulting, elastic potential energy is stored in the bending of the pole.

Conceptual Questions
 Explain in terms of energy how dissipative forces such as friction reduce the amplitude of
a harmonic oscillator. Also explain how a driving mechanism can compensate. (A
pendulum clock is such a system.)
 The temperature of the atmosphere oscillates from a maximum near noontime and a
minimum near sunrise. Would you consider the atmosphere to be in stable or unstable
equilibrium?
 What conditions must be met to produce SHM?
 If frequency is not constant for some oscillation, can the oscillation be SHM?
 Can you think of any examples of harmonic motion where the frequency may depend on
the amplitude?
 Give an example of a simple harmonic oscillator, specifically noting how its frequency is
independent of amplitude.
 Explain why you expect an object made of a stiff material to vibrate at a higher frequency
than a similar object made of a more pliable material.
 As you pass a freight truck with a trailer on a highway, you notice that its trailer is
bouncing up and down slowly. Is it more likely that the trailer is heavily loaded or nearly
empty? Explain your answer.
  Some people modify cars to be much closer to the ground than when manufactured.
Should they install stiffer springs? Explain your answer.

# Problem: For a particle vibrating simple harmonically the displacement is 8 cm at the instant
when the velocity is 6 cm/sec and the displacement is 6 cm at the instant when the velocity is 8
cm/sec. calculate the (i) amplitude, (ii) time period.
Solution:
y  a sin t   

 sin t    
y
a

y2 a2  y2 a2  y2
So, cost     1   
a2 a2 a

a2  y2
Velocity, a cost     a
a
 a 2
 y2 
The velocity of a particle executing SHM,
dy
v   a2  y2
dt

In the first case, v1   a 2  y 2 here v1 = 6 cm/sec and y1 = 8 cm.

 6   a 2  64 (1)

In the second case, v2   a 2  y 2 here v1 = 8 cm/sec and y1 = 6 cm.

8   a 2  36 (2)
Dividing eqn. (2) by eqn. (1) and squaring:

64 a 2  36

36 a 2  64
 a  10cm
The amplitude of the vibration is 10 cm.
Substituting the value of a = 10 cm in eqn. (1)

6   100  64  6
   1 radians
  1
n  hertz
2 2
Frequency
1
Time Period T   2 sec
n

# Problem: A particle performs simple harmonic motion given by the equation

y  20 sin t   . If the time period is 30 seconds and the particle has a displacement of 10 cm
at t = 0, find i) epoch; ii) the phase angle at t = 5 seconds, and iii) the phase difference between
two positions of the particle 15 seconds apart.

Solution:
2 2 
Here y  20 sin t   , T = 30 sec,     radians / sec
T 30 15
i) at t = 0, y = 10 cm.

10  20 sin 0 
15
or , sin   0.5

or , radian
6

  
ii) at t = 5 sec, the phase angle  t    =   5   
 15 6 2


iii) at t = 0, the phase angle 1  , at t = 15 sec, the phase angle
6
 2  t   
 
   15  
 15 6
7

6
7 
The phase difference  2  1     radian
6 6 .
Problem: Calculating Stored Energy: A Tranquilizer Gun Spring
We can use a toy gun’s spring mechanism to ask and answer two simple questions: (a) How
much energy is stored in the spring of a tranquilizer gun that has a force constant of 50.0 N/m
and is compressed 0.150 m? (b) If you neglect friction and the mass of the spring, at what speed
will a 2.00-g projectile be ejected from the gun?

(a) In this image of the gun, the spring is uncompressed before being cocked. (b) The spring has
been compressed a distance x, and the projectile is in place. (c) When released, the spring
converts elastic potential energy PEel into kinetic energy.

Strategy for a
(a): The energy stored in the spring can be found directly from elastic potential energy equation,
because k and x are given.
Solution for a
Entering the given values for k and x yields

Strategy for b
Because there is no friction, the potential energy is converted entirely into kinetic energy. The
expression for kinetic energy can be solved for the projectile’s speed.
Solution for b
1. Identify known quantities:

2. Solve for v:

3. Convert units:

Discussion
(a) and (b): This projectile speed is impressive for a tranquilizer gun (more than 80 km/h). The
numbers in this problem seem reasonable. The force needed to compress the spring is small
enough for an adult to manage, and the energy imparted to the dart is small enough to limit the
damage it might do. Yet, the speed of the dart is great enough for it to travel an acceptable
distance.

Problem: Calculate the Frequency and Period of Oscillations: Bad Shock Absorbers in a
Car
If the shock absorbers in a car go bad, then the car will oscillate at the least provocation, such as
when going over bumps in the road and after stopping (See Figure 16.10). Calculate the
frequency and period of these oscillations for such a car if the car’s mass (including its load) is
900 kg and the force constant (k) of the suspension system is .

Strategy
The frequency of the car’s oscillations will be that of a simple harmonic oscillator as given in the

equation . The mass and the force constant are both given.

Solution
1. Enter the known values of k and m:

2. Calculate the frequency:

3. You could use to calculate the period, but it is simpler to use the
relationship T=1/f and substitute the value just found for f:

Discussion
The values of T and f both seem about right for a bouncing car. You can observe these
oscillations if you push down hard on the end of a car and let go.