Debre Tabor University

Gafat Institute of Technology

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Electronics Communication Engineering
Title: Internship Report and Project
Hosting Company: Amhara Mass Media
Corporation(AMMC)

Duration: April 1/2024- June 30/2024

Name ID

1. Dawit sibhat 1514

Advisor

Mr: Muhabaw,A

Submission Date: 11/03/2024

Debre tabor, ETHIOPIA

 INTERNSHIP REPORT AND PROJECT

Declaration
I am student of electrical engineering at Debre Tabor university have completed my internship
training at Amhara Mass Media Corporation for the past three months (April –June 2016) E.c .
For anyone who is concerned to this report, I declare that this paper is my maximum effort work
from I was practice in AMMC Company during intern period. All the information is collected
from the place that I have worked in. I announce and certify that my work is made to be original
according to the intern ship report writing guide line given by the school of electrical and computer
engineering and I would like to assure with my signature.

Name of student Signature Date

Dawit sibhat ……….. ……

Approved by Signature Date

1,Advisor Mr Muhabaw.A ……….. …..

2, Chairman Mr Muhabaw.A ……….. ……

3,Head of Departmet ………. ………

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Acknowledgment
I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to all those who give us their support and
encouragement to the success and completion of this internship program. First of all I want to
express my sincere gratitude to the Almighty God for giving us the strength to pass challenges and
complete the report with in the stipulated time.
I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation to the technical manager Mr. Muktar
who had accepted my request for internship in the company. A special thanks to my company
supervisor Mr MENGSTU who has given his ultimate knowledge, experience, encouragements,
and guidance with attractive approach.
Also, I also express sincere thankfulness to my internship mentors Mr: Muhabaw. A for their
kind advice, valuable suggestions and gave us the guide line to write the report.
Further I want express my special appreciation to our host company (AMC) for its willingness to
accept students and to gain work experiences in the company. I sincerely gratitude to entire radio
and television production technicians for their warm welcoming, motivation and support. Finally,
I would like to acknowledge my university for its great concern in my education. I appreciate your
support to have an internship period and make us obtain practical knowledge and experiences.

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Executive Summery
The purpose of this report is to write a report about the internship experience that what I
undertaken, and to come up with what I have been working in my three months internship stay at
AMC, concerned with the media broadcasting related works. This report consists five main
chapters and I have briefly summarized what is expected in these five Chapters. The first chapter
describes the historical background of AMMC.
It starts from the brief history of the Agency and continues to the Agency‟s services, customers,
organizational structure and workflow. The second chapter of the report expresses mainly the
overall internship experience gained from the Agency. It describes the sections that I was
involved, challenges faced and measures taken in order to overcome these challenges. The third
chapter of the report describes the overall benefits I gained from this internship. It further briefs
about the theoretical and practical knowledge‟s acquired and also the team, interpersonal and
leader ships skills. I developed during the internship. The forth chapter is describes about my
project. Finally, the last chapter explains the conclusion and recommendations for the concerned
bodies.

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Table of Contents
Declaration ................................................................................................................................................i
Acknowledgment...................................................................................................................................... ii
Executive Summery................................................................................................................................. iii
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... vii
List of Acronym/Abbreviation .................................................................................................................. ix
Part one ................................................................................................................................................... 1
INTERNSHIP REPORT .......................................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Background of the AMMC ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Historical Background of the AMMC ............................................................................................ 2
1.2 Vision, Mission and Objective of the AMMC ..................................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Vision .......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Mission ....................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Main Services of the AMMC ............................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Main Customers of AMMC................................................................................................................ 4
1.5 Organizational Structure of AMMC ................................................................................................... 5
1.6 Structural Work Flow......................................................................................................................... 6
1.7 Broadcast Process of AMMC ............................................................................................................. 7
1.7.1 Radio broadcast process.............................................................................................................. 7
1.7.2 Television broadcast process ....................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER TWO..................................................................................................................................... 8
Overall Internship Experience .................................................................................................................. 8
2.1 Objectives of the Internships .............................................................................................................. 8
2.1.1 General Objective........................................................................................................................ 8
2.1.2 Specific Objectives....................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 How we did get the Company ............................................................................................................ 8

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2.3 Work Section ..................................................................................................................................... 8

2.3.1 Radio Production Components, Broadcasting and Operation ....................................................... 9
2.3.1.1 Radio Studio ......................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.1.2 Radio Control Room ............................................................................................................13
2.3.2 Television Broadcasting Production Component and Operation ..................................................19
2.3.2.1 Television Studio .................................................................................................................19
2.3.2.2 Television Central Apparatus Room (CAR) ............................................................................24
2.3.2.3 Production Control room .....................................................................................................25
2.3.2.3 Master Control Room ..........................................................................................................26
2.3.2.4 Satellite Uplink and Down link chain ....................................................................................28
2.3.3 High power amplifier (HPA) ........................................................................................................30
2.3.4 Antenna .....................................................................................................................................30
2.4 Major Duties during the Internship ....................................................................................................32
2.5 Challenges We Faced and Measures Taken to the Challenges ............................................................32
2.5.1 Challenges ..................................................................................................................................32
2.5.2 Measures ...................................................................................................................................32
3.1 Theoretical Knowledge .....................................................................................................................33
3.2 Practical skills ..................................................................................................................................33
3.3 Team Playing Skills ..........................................................................................................................34
3.4 Interpersonal Skills ...........................................................................................................................34
3.5 Leadership Skills ..............................................................................................................................35
Part Two.................................................................................................................................................36
INTERNSHIP PROJECT..............................................................................................................................36
CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................36
4.1 Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 36
4.2 Background and introduction of the project .................................................................................... 37
4.3 problem statement and justification............................................................................................... 38
4.4 Objective of the project ................................................................................................................... 39
4.4.1 General objective ..................................................................................................................... 39
4.4.2 specific objective .......................................................................................................................39
4.5 Significance of the project................................................................................................................ 39
4.6 Motivation of the project ................................................................................................................. 40

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4.7 Scope of the project......................................................................................................................... 40

4.8 Methodology ................................................................................................................................... 40
4.9 Literature review ............................................................................................................................. 41
4.10 Design and analaysis….................................................................................................................... 42
4.10.1 Audio input/ Microphone ....................................................................................................42
4.10.1.1 Sensitivity .................................................................................................................42
4.10.1.2 Signal to noise ratio(SNR) ......................................................................................... 43
4.10.1.3 Frequency response.................................................................................................. 43
4.10.1.4 Distortion ................................................................................................................. 43
4.10.1.5 Directivity ................................................................................................................ 43
4.10.1.6 Output impedance.................................................................................................... 44
4.10.2 Design of pre_ emphasis......................................................................................................44
4.10.3 Designing of an oscillator.................................................................................................... 45
4.10.4 Modulator… ....................................................................................................................... 46
4.10.5 Design procedure for CE power amplifier............................................................................. 46
4.10.6 Antennas............................................................................................................................ 50
4.10.6.1 Radiation resistance................................................................................................. 50
4.10.6.2 Design of antenna cross sectional area .................................................................... 51
4.10.6.3 Radiation resistance................................................................................................ 51
4.11 Result and Discussion.................................................................................................................... 56
4.11.1 conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 59
CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................................................................59
Conclusion and Recommendations ..........................................................................................................59
5.1 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................59
5.2 Recommendations .............................................................................................................................60
Recommendation for AMMC ..................................................................................................................60
Recommendation for the Department ......................................................................................................61
Recommendation for the UIL..................................................................................................................61
Reference ..............................................................................................................................................61

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List of Figures
Figure 1. 1 overall organization of AMMC. ................................................................................ 6
Figure 1. 2 Work flow .................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 1. 3 Radio broadcast process ............................................................................................. 8
Figure 1. 4 TV broadcast process .................................................................................................8
Figure 2. 1 Radio studio ............................................................................................................. 11
Figure 2. 2 Dynamic microphone ............................................................................................... 12
Figure 2. 3 Condenser microphone ............................................................................................. 12
Figure 2. 4 Patch panel. .............................................................................................................13
Figure 2. 5 Pin XLR cable ......................................................................................................... 13
Figure 2. 6 On air studio light .................................................................................................... 14
Figure 2. 7 AXIA AOIP audio mixing console ........................................................................... 15
Figure 2. 8 Telos........................................................................................................................ 16
Figure 2. 9 CAR for radio Broadcasting ..................................................................................... 17
Figure 2. 10 Mix Engine ............................................................................................................ 18
Figure 2. 11 Path for emergency................................................................................................. 18
Figure 2. 12 Digital to Analog converter (DAC) ......................................................................... 19
Figure 2. 13 Power Amplifier .................................................................................................... 19
Figure 2. 14 Video wall studio ................................................................................................... 21
Figure 2. 15 Camera................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 2. 16 Studio lighting system ........................................................................................... 23
Figure 2. 17 Lavalier MIC ......................................................................................................... 24
Figure 2. 18 Triax cable ............................................................................................................. 24
Figure 2. 19 Video signal flow through EDA ............................................................................. 26
Figure 2. 20 Character Generator. .............................................................................................. 27
Figure 2. 21 Video Switcher ...................................................................................................... 28
Figure 2. 22 Multi-viewer .......................................................................................................... 29
Figure 2. 23 Overall TV transmission block diagram. ................................................................ 30
Figure 2. 24 Uplink satellite system ........................................................................................... 30
Figure 2. 25 Satellite downlink system ....................................................................................... 31
Figure 2. 26 YAGI-UDA antenna .............................................................................................. 32
Figure 2. 27 Parabolic dish antenna ............................................................................................ 33
Figure 4.1 Methodology of the project ....................................................................................... 41
Figure 4. 2 Block diagram of FM transmitter… .......................................................................... 42
Figure 4. 3 FM transmitter circuit ............................................................................................. 54
Figure 4. 4 Frequency Response of FM transmitter… ............................................................... 56
Figure 4. 5 Fourier Response of FM transmitter ........................................................................ 57

Figure 4.6 Digital oscilloscope of FM transmitter ...................................................................... 58

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List of Acronym/Abbreviation

AC....................................................... Alternating Current

ACU… ................................................ Antenna Control Unit
ADC .................................................... Analog to Digital Converter
AES/EBU… ........................................Audio Engineering Society/European Broadcasting Union
AF ....................................................... Audio Frequency
AM… .................................................. Amplitude Modulation
AMMC ................................................. Amhara Mass Media Corporation
ANRS ................................................... Amhara National Regional State
CCD… .................................................. Charge Coupled Device
CCU… .................................................. Camera Control Unit
CG… ..................................................... Character Generator
CGMC…................................................ City Governmental Media Corporation
DAC ....................................................... Digital to Analog Converter
FM .......................................................... Frequency Modulation
GPI/O… ................................................... General Purpose Input Output
HPA… ..................................................... High Power Amplifier
MCR ......................................................... Master Control Room
RF ..............................................................Radio Frequency
SNR…....................................................... Signal to Noise Ratio
UHF ........................................................... Ultra High Frequency
UIL............................................................. University industrial linkage
CF ................................................................. Carier Frequency

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Part one
INTERNSHIP REPORT

CHAPTER ONE
Background of the AMMC
1.1 Introduction
Broadcast media typically refers to information (speeches, documentaries, interviews
advertisements, daily news, financial report, etc.) distributed through radio and television. Due to
these channels, broadcast media has become the most expedient means to transmit information
immediately to the widest possible audience. In our country broadcast media has a long history.
Today, media has become a day-to-day necessity of the people. The number of broadcast media
user is increasing day by day in our country. It is a very good method to rich vast population of the
people with low cost. Presently there are a lot of governmental and private broadcasts Medias.
Among them AmharaMass Media Corporation (AMMC) is the pre dominant regional
governmental media service provider company in our country. The agency is founded to
strengthening the regions culture, traditions, values, by creating global closer and transforming
the region‟s people to better development. The company is trying to increase its capacity,
accessibility, and quality gradually. It broadcasts its different services to its audiences using four
Mediums; Radio, Television, website and Newspaper. In addition to Amharic its transmission is
available in four languages.

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1.1.1 Historical Background of the AMMC

Amhara Mass media Corporation (AMMC) is one of the first regional media which is found in
Amhara national regional state. It was found in 1986 E.C and start its journeys in coordination
with former Ethiopian Radio and Television Agency (now EBC) and Ethiopian Press Organization
employers using old media infrastructures. The agency made a progressive change throughout the
year to give a better media service for the society of the region. Accordingly, the company
published the first newspaper for the region which is called “YebekurLij” weekly starting from 7
Dec1987 E.C. Since the interests of the region‟s society for information increases dramatically,
the society asked frequently for additional media service. And so, a radio studio is built in
collaboration of ANRS and SIDA in Bahir Dar city. As a result the agency started Amhara Radio
program transmission with one-hour leased air time per a day from Ethiopian national radio service
since 1989 E.C.As Daily 1 hour radio transmission (1:002:00 PM) still couldn‟t be enough to give
coverage for the overall region‟s event. Therefore, ANRS decided to build its own 801 KHz MW
radio station.
This phenomenon enabled the agency to be independent and to expand its transmission hours six
times that of the previous since 1997 E.C. After 2001 E.C it increases its air time to nine hours and
also started transmission using 6090 KHz short wave.
In addition to raise Amhara radio‟s air time and technology, the agency provided media service by
different languages of the region like that of Awigni, Afan Oromo, and Himtigna. started their
transmission by taking 15 minutes air time weekly in1997 E.C. now a day each of the three
languages have two hours air time in a week. Additionally, the agency started publishing
newspapers every two weeks by those languages since 2003 E.C.
In our country‟s broadcasting media industry, AMMC is an ice breaker in developing regional
television program. Amhara television program started its weekly 30 minutes air time transmission
by having an agreement with Ethiopian television in 1992 E.C. The agency improved Amhara
television‟s air time to widen its accessibility. Accordingly, it increased its transmission hours
from 30 minutes to 1 hour then to 3 and 7 hours.
Following the end of AMMC‟s modern radio and television building construction in 2005 E.C
by ANRS, starting from September 2006 E.C the television air time program rises to 18 hours.
The

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agency has also set out different FM radio stations, namely FM Bahir Dar 96.9 in 1994 E.C, FM
Desie 87.9 in 2005 E.C and FM Debre Birhan 91.4 in 2007 E.C.
Since all media services found in the modern complex building, it allowed the agency to deliver
quality services, to expand its accessibility and to have comfortable work environments for
workers. Now a day the agency broadcasts Amhara television and FM Bahir Bar 96.9 for 24 hours
in the past three years ago. And also, its services including Amhara TV, FM Bahir Dar and Bekur
newspaper are available in live stream on its website and in social Medias [1].

1.2 Vision, Mission and Objective of the AMC

1.2.1 Vision
To see the Amhara media corporation being primary and favorite developmental institutes of
information delivery throughout the country.

1.2.2 Mission
Becoming a leading edge in bring about national consensus and evoke ideological transformation
via broadcasting information that catalyze inspiration and change hence pushing forward
individual and collective consciousness that will grant economic and social well-being. Or to
collect sufficient information practical for the regional political, economic and cooperative social
movement and regional and national attitude shall be strengthened, courageous. Core values
 Conforming to professional tenets
 Public advocacy
 Artistic creativity
 Team work

Objective of the Company

 To express the governmental law and proclamation, policy and its implementation.
 To give sequential description on fundamental directives that the country pursues.

 To endeavor strong alliance or relationship between the government and the people.

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 Political power that runs for peace and lawful green path shall sustain good participation
in legal law and explicitly elaborate their views and deserve the acceptance of the people.

 Concentrate on the validity of the performances of the people and publicize them.

 Help to share indigenous knowledge and the culture embedded among the nation since all
sorts of cultures, practices, customs and experiences are casted through media. 

1.3 Main Services of the AMMC

The main services which are provided by the agency to its customers include:
 Radio, television, and newspaper news coverage service.

 Product and service advertisements.

 Sponsorship service.

 Broadcasted reports selling and copy service.

 Documentary programs production and broadcast service.

 Foreign capacity commissioning service.

 Radio and TV air time lease with fair price.

 Special program coverage of national and religious holydays.

 Radio and TV programs production.

 Radio, TV, and newspaper‟s advertisement production, arrangement, broadcasting, and

printing service.
 Media training and consultancy.

1.4 Main Customers of AMMC

 People of the region

 The regional council

 Governmental and non-governmental organizations in the region

 Manufacturers and suppliers of media technology equipment.

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1.5 Organizational Structure of AMMC

Executive board

General Manager

Department Manager

Plan and audience Income Division

Radio.TV Press & News Engineering

Radio Professionals
Press

Television
News

Print

Figure 1.1 overall organization of AMMC

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1.6 Structural Work Flow

Media technology
development deputy

ICT

Production & transmission Broadcast engineering process

operation directorate owner Directorate

TV transmission & TV & radio equipment

production team installation &
maintenance team
Radio transmission &
Transmission Installation &
production team
maintenance team

Ingest & archiving

Technique store
team

Power system & air

condition team

Figure 1.2 Work flow

As shown on the figure above the structure describes the work flow in media technology section.
The TV transmission and production team where we do our internship specifically i.e. TV & Radio
equipment and transmission installation work sections under broadcast engineering process owner
directorate.

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1.7 Broadcast Process of AMMC

Broadcasting is the distribution of audio or video content to a dispersed audience via any
electronics mass communication medium. The agency has two main broadcasts. These are radio
and television broadcasts; their broadcast process is summarized below using block diagram.

1.7.1 Radio broadcast process

Audio signal Audio TX Link TX

(mic,rec data) mixer antenna

Final TX Antenna Link RX Channel

antenna (air)

Figure 1.3 Radio broadcast process

1.7.2 Television broadcast process

Vision
Video mixer
Camera

Frame HP
Modulato
VTR, sync A
r
external

Figure 1.4 TV broadcast process

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CHAPTER TWO
Overall Internship Experience
2.1 Objectives of the Internships

2.1.1 General Objective

The main objective of internship program is that to improve our theoretical &practical knowledge
that we have known in the past four years in Debre tabor university.

2.1.2 Specific Objectives

 To understand about work ethics, responsibility, punctuality, Loyalty etc.
 To improve interpersonal interaction, team work, leadership skill, team playing,
Theoretical & practical aspects.
 To introduce & adapt the real-world working environment to students that will seek
potentials for their future life.
 Enhance student problem solver capacity on their engineering aspect.

2.2 How we did get the Company

After we have taken the request paper of internship from the university industry linkage (UIL) in
May 2014 E.C, we have started to search and choose the proper company which is related to our
filled of study Electrical engineering /Electronics and communication Engineering/. We started to
search companies only which are related with our stream selection. We thought that Media
Company and Ethio-telecom were our best destination. Unfortunately, we did not enter and start
our internship in Ethio-telecom because of unknown reason come from the company. So, AMECO
was our targeted company that fitted to our field of study /Electronics and communication/. We
submitted the request to AMC and got acceptance from the company. We met the manager of
company Mr. Muktar who assigned Mr. Yaliganesh as technical supervisor and agreed to start
based on the schedule in ethical manner.

2.3 Work Section

AMC consist a lot of work sections under its administration. Some of sections include TV
production and transmission, Transmission installation & maintenance, Radio production and
transmission, Power system & air condition team, TV & radio equipment installation &

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maintenance team, General Service, etc. but we were working in two sections i.e. television
production and transmission and the other one is radio production and transmission.

2.3.1 Radio Production Components, Broadcasting and Operation

Radio is an audio device of passing messages to a large audience. Radio involves the process by
which messages are sent through electrical waves. In other words, the sound could be sent and
received through these waves. Radio is also the process of sending and receiving messages through
the air, using electromagnetic waves.
Any radio setup has two parts:
 The transmitter
 The receiver
The transmitter takes some sort of message, encodes it onto a wave and transmits it with radio
waves. The receiver receives the radio waves and decodes the message from the wave it receives.
There are very many radio waves all around us so a receiver must have a tuner in order to isolate
a particular signal as well as an amplifier to make it stronger.
Both the transmitter and receiver use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.

2.3.1.1 Radio Studio

A radio studio is a place to live broadcast or record audio professionally. Often, it‟s a sound
proofed room which gets rid of unwanted noises that would often get mixed into broadcasts. We
must choose smaller places to reduce echo audio. We either need to absorb that sound or find a
smaller room.
The room we choose must be acoustically perfect, which means when we talk or clap there are no
echoes. That way you don‟t get distorted background noise on our broadcasts.

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Figure 2.1 Radio studio

The room is separated from control room by glass window for visual contact with the technician.
There are two FM and AM studios equipped with same devices.
In each studio there are 3 studio microphones with their pre-amplifiers, on air light (inside and
outside), wall clock, head phones, patch panel, studio speaker/monitor/, TV and computer.

A. Microphone (MIC)
A microphone is input transducer which changes other form energy into electrical energy. It is a
device that translates sound vibrations in the air into electronic. There are two types of
microphones are commonly used.

 Dynamic microphone  Condenser microphone

Dynamic microphone: It works according to Faraday's law. Dynamic microphone transforms
sound into audio signals via the electromagnetic principle, also called the electromagnetic theory
of induction. According to this principle, when metal passes through a magnetic field, an electrical
current is transported into the metal.

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Figure 2.2 Dynamic microphone

Condenser microphone: - Condenser microphones convert acoustic energy into an electrical

signal. Condenser mics are constructed with a lightweight diaphragm which is suspended by a
fixed plate.

Figure 2.3 Condenser microphone

Condenser microphones use two charged metal plates (a diaphragm and backplate) that form a
parallel plate capacitor. When sound waves hit the mic's diaphragm, they vibrate within the
diaphragm, and the distance between the back plate and diaphragm varies the voltage called
capacitance. Sound waves cause pressure against the diaphragm, which causes it to move. The
movement of the diaphragm and the change in spacing produces the electrical signal that
corresponds to the sound that's picked up.

B. Patch panels
A patch panel in a local area network (LAN) is a mounted hardware assembly that contains ports
that are used to connect and manage incoming and outgoing LAN cables. A patch panel provides
a way to keep large numbers of cables organized.
The patch panel makes it easy to rearrange circuits and devices by moving the patch cables between
network devices.

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Figure 2.4 Patch panel

In radio studios we use XLR cables. XLR Cables deliver a balanced audio signal. The most
common type of XLR cable has 3 pins. Two signal wires and a ground wire. Pins 2 and 3, which
are the ones that carry the audio signal, can also carry the phantom power voltage which is used to
power condenser microphones and other equipment.

Figure 2.5 Pin XLR cable

C. On Air Light
On air light is a special light just to know a microphone in the studio is live. In order to show
everybody that the program is live, you need an On-Air light. There must be one inside the studio,
and one outside. It prevents people from coming into the studio, opening doors or disturbing the
show with any kind of noise.

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Figure 2.6 On air studio light

This light is automatically turned on/off by the audio mixer whenever a microphone channel is
turned on. It has its own detector.

D. Speaker
The speaker will be used when the audio is played in the car from computer. The speaker helps the
journalists to precede work after finishing playing the audio.
If we use Omni directional or sensitive microphone, the audio we send to transmission will be hear
back through speaker inside studio. The audio we hear through speaker is in amplified form. The
amplified form of audio will again feed to microphone. Finally, loop will be formed and we will
fail to broadcast. Most of the time, it isn‟t used.

2.3.1.2 Radio Control Room

Room adjacent to the studio that is equipped with sound control and recording equipment, the
director monitors the on air program from here. There are some equipment‟s which coordinate
each other for final best production. They are explained below.
Audio Mixer: - The heart of any radio studio is the audio console (sometimes called a radio panel,
sound panel, audio console or sound desk). Audio mixer is an electronic device used for combining
(also called "mixing"), routing, and changing the level, timbre and/or dynamics of audio signals.
The mixer is a completely digital system. It runs audio over IP, this means no Audio source is
connected to the mixer directly. Instead, everything is plugged in to the mix engine. The console
itself is just a control center for each channel.
The company is using the sAxia mixing console; it has 16 configurable channels with their
corresponding fader to control level of sound source. 3 of which are mic inputs, 2 of which are
telephone line, 2 CD player inputs, 1 of which HDR input, 3 of which are other studios link input,
2 cassette player Input.

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Figure 2.7 AXIA AOIP audio mixing console

Operation of Audio Mixer

The technician can select which source the audience hears by raising level of one source (For
example a microphone) and turning off the other source by sliding fader bar up and down. The
audio technician can also combine sources by raising the levels of two, three or even all sources at
once. The fader of the audio mixer is worked by the principles of potentiometer. Potentiometer is
a position sensor device that used to sense the position of the object by changing the resistance
level in turn changes the current level. So when we push the feeder the resistance level of the mixer
will vary as a result the signal level varies. Even if different sources are come into the mixer, only
selected sources become on air.
When we turn a microphone on, a radio console will mute any loudspeaker in studio and illuminate
an “on air” light simultaneously. When you turn a CD player, Phone or Computer channel on,
often it will “trigger” that input so it starts playing immediately.
There is also a master level control (fader) that controls the overall audio output. When the master
level control is set to zero (all the way down on a fader bar), no sound will come out of the audio
mixer, no matter how high the individual input levels are set. This master level control allows the
audio technician to increase or decrease all of the level quickly.

Play Out Automation Software

The computer system that plays back music, spots (ads, promos, etc.) and sweepers (the little voice-
overs played between songs) is called a Play out System or Automation Software. These are
specially designed computer programs that allow for continuous playback of audio, with a lot of

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granular control for the technician. The software which is used in AMC is NETIA software. It is
not free tool; rather it is purchased from the owner of the company with its dedicated computer. It
enables to record audios and automation playback of scheduled programs [2].
 Intercom/Talk Back: - How do you communicate easily between studios? An intercom
or talkback is IP based intercommunication device which enables different workers in
different rooms to communicate easily. Since it is functioning independent of the public
telephone network (PTN) it does not charge any money.
 Telos (Studio Telephone): - It is simply a telephone which used to present (online talk
shows, for example) with maximum 12 different callers at the same time by its 12 different
channels but it is not mandatory to use all channels, rather it can be defined by the user.
For example, AMC only uses 2 telephone channels.

Figure 2.8Telos

 Audio Players: - Are electronic devices which are used to playback recorded audio sources
and to feed to audio mixer. Some of them include CD/DVD player, PC, HDR and tape
player.
2.3.1.3 Radio Central Apparatus Room (CAR)
A central apparatus room (CAR, pronounced "C-A-R"), central machine room, or central
equipment room (CER), or central technical area (CTA), or rack room is where shared equipment
common to all technical areas is located.They contain broadcast and monitoring equipment, which
all the operations are monitored by the transmission engineer, without disturbing the studio
recordings.

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In AMECO central apparatus room is grouped in three racks in a proper manner. These are
including FM rack, AM rack, and server racks which are contain their own devices.

FM AM Server

Figure 2.9 CAR for radio Broadcasting

In radio CAR, there is mix engine, digital to analog convertor (DAC), master clock, Amplifier,
radio transmitter, automatic change over unit, emergency CD player, and etc.

A. Mix Engine
Mix Engine is the main device in radio CAR. The main job for Mix Engine is performing the task
given by the mixing console in control room of the radio. It is also called mix brain. In CAR room
there are 2 AM Mix Engines and 2 FM Mix Engines. The final output of mixing audio is in Mix
Engine. Mix engine is connected to control room (GPIO) by IP platform.

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Figure 2.10 Mix Engine

B. Master clock and Emergency clock

In radio studio a sound picked up by a microphone is in analog form of electrical signal. In radio
studio the system is digitalize. So, ADC in IC form converts analog to digital. In conversion
process (ADC), we execute sampling and quantization.
Master clock gives to all devices the same time to sync correctly at the same time. It is automatic
because it is connected to GPS. Emergency clock is a clock used if master clock is accidentally
shut down.

C. Automatic Change over Unit (ACU)

ACU is a micro-controller-based system which monitors the correct operation of the main
transmitter and automatically switches to the back-up transmitter if it detects any failure in the
main transmitter‟s operation. Automatic change-over unit closes main transmitter and
simultaneously opens a second or backup transmitter.

D. Emergency CD player
The emergency CD player has CD recorded data that lasts several hours. When transmission downs
accidentally in the studio, the CD starts to play automatically.

Emergency CD Amplifier Transmitter Antenna

player

Figure 2.11 Path for emergency

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E. Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)

Inside studio, the audio system is digital. We must convert digital to analog to transmit. DAC is a
device used to perform this task.A DAC takes digital data and transforms it into an analog audio
signal.

Figure 2.12Digital to Analog converter (DAC)

F. Power Amplifier
Radio broadcasting uses radio frequency (RF) as carrier frequency for data transmission. The
channel for RF communication is lossy, and thus, it is necessary to boost or amplify the signal
levels during both transmissions. In the transmitter, the power amplifier (PA) is used to boost the
signal power levels.

Figure 2.13 Power Amplifier

G. Radio Transmitter
A transmitter is a separate electronic component that generates a radio wave. These waves are used
in communication systems to transfer data like audio. In Radio sound waves are converted into
electrical signal called Audio frequency waves. A transmitter takes energy from a power source
and transforms this into a radio frequency that changes direction millions to billions of times per
second depending on the band that the transmitter needs to send in.

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In AMECO there are 2 AM and 2 FM radios with their own transmitters and additional Backups.
Both AM and FM radios take different modulation techniques to work. In radio modulation is
needed for High range transmission and Quality of transmission.
AM Modulation
Amplitude modulation is a process by which the wave signal is transmitted by modulating the
amplitude of the signal. It is often called AM and is commonly used in transmitting a piece of
information through a radio carrier wave.

FM Modulation
Frequency Modulation (FM) is a form of modulation in which changes in the carrier wave
frequency correspond directly to changes in the base band signal. Frequency Modulation (FM) is
the encoding of information in a carrier wave by changing the instantaneous frequency of the wave.
FM radio stations operate in the 88 – 108 MHz band.

2.3.2 Television Broadcasting Production Component and Operation

2.3.2.1 Television Studio

A television studio, also called a television production studio, is an installation room in which
video productions takes place. The studio floor is the actual stage on which the actions that will be
recorded and viewed take place.
TV studio floor contains the following essential components: -
 Camera system with Tele prompter

 Lighting system

 Micro phones and Audio

 Patch panel and cable

 Video wall

A. Video wall
TV studio, as well as radio studio, it must be set sound proofed. AMICO uses 8 screens as 1 screen
to set virtual set wall video. This Background screen used to display normal and special messages
in different incidents.

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Figure 2.14 Video wall studio

B. Camera system
The television camera is a device that uses light-sensitive image sensors to convert an optical image
into a sequence of electrical signals. It is used to generate the primary components of the picture
signal.
AMECO uses digital canon camera but it has no memory on it. All data (picture) send to CAR
through a cable called Triax. AMECO has 3 studio cameras. Field cameras have battery which
gives dc power source.
Main Parts of a Camera and Their Functions
 Lens
 Teleprompter
Lens: - It is a fundamental part of camera which helps in capturing an object and storing it. The
better the lens better is the quality of the picture.
Teleprompter: - It is a display device that enables a presenter or anchor to read from a prepared
script or speech while maintaining eye contact with the camera at all times.
Teleprompter works with a reflective screen that is sits in front of the video camera lens, as well
as a monitor, adjusted directly in bottom of the screen, that displays the script.
The image on the monitor is 1800 shift on the screen. A mirror again flipped the script and a
presenter can read correctly.

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Working principle of TV camera

Light enters a camera through the lens and hits a light detecting sensor inside the body of the
camera. The sensor is comprised of millions of light detecting sensor elements in a grid. To
construct an image the processor uses the data in the image file to control the levels of red green
or blue to form a single image.

TV studio Camera TV camera with Teleprompter

Figure 2.15 Camera

Studio camera is connected with CAR base station. Each camera has its own base station. Studio
camera and base station is connected physically through Triax cable.

C. Lighting system
TV lighting technique is adjusting and manipulating of light to meet the technical requirements of
the camera in creating a good TV picture. AMECO uses 3 key lighting techniques to adjust light.
Key lighting: Reducing shadows and making the subject stand out among other people.
Fill Lighting: It is used to make the subject clearly seen.
Back lighting: This light gives a direct contrast between a specified person or object and the
background environment.
In AMECO TV studio there are three types of continuous lighting in TV production: fluorescent,
LED and tungsten.

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Figure 2.16 Studio lighting system

D. Micro phones and Audio

In radio broadcasting the signal is only audio signal. But in Television broadcasting the signal is
video signal. Video is combination of audio and pictures.
In TV studio we send picture from the camera to CAR base station through Triax cable. To make
a video audio must be sent. In TV studio AMECO uses Lavalier MIC to take sound (audio signal).
A lavalier microphone is very small microphone that is attached either directly to an anchor‟s body
or their clothing. Lavalier microphones are battery-powered. We can change and recharge
batteries.

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Figure 2.17Lavalier MIC

Lavalier MIC is a type of condenser MIC. But lavalier microphone that has a condenser transducer
will probably pick up background noises when it's recording. Lavalier MIC used over condenser
MIC to allow hands-free operation.

E. Cable
Triax cable is cable which mostly used in Television to connect a camera and base station of CAR
(TV). Triax cable has different parts. The outer part of Triax used as protective. The core used to
give both power and signal connections. Camera gets its power that pass through this cable. It can
transmit both signals and power.

Figure 2.18Triax cable

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2.3.2.2 Television Central Apparatus Room (CAR)

In television broadcasting a central apparatus room (CAR, pronounced "C-A-R) is where shared
equipment common to all technical areas is located. Broadcasting companies have several of these
rooms. The CAR plays a role in the maintenance of all common equipment which is necessary for
continuous transmission. In working area of CAR may bring the contaminated air. It should be air-
conditioned to stop transmission breakdown.
CAR rooms contain broadcast and broadcast aid devices. In CAR devices will be control device,
audio device, video device or processing device that used in broadcasting television. CAR houses
base station, EDA, decoder (both broadcast and local), synchronizer, Encoder, Conxecto and other
devices.

A. Base station
A base station is a device used as a central connection point for a wireless device to communicate.
It further connects the device to other networks or devices. In television Triax cable used to connect
cameras with base station. Studio cameras are controlled through base station and base station is
also controlled by control room. Base station is used to adjust white balance. Base stations are a
transceiver, capable of sending and receiving signals. It receives from camera and sends to EDA
device.

B. EDA
EDA (Equalizing Distributing Amplifier) is a device that can equally amplify the file that takes
from in base station or video switcher or other external sources. After amplification to add extra
effect, it must send to different work sections. So, EDA can distribute the identical file to director
room, archive room, editing room and other required room.
EDA takes a video signal as an input, amplifies it, and outputs the amplified video signal to two or
more outputs.
EDA has amplifier to maintain the strength of received signals because of signal loosing in
distribution process.

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Camera from Base station EDA

studio

Editing Archival Director

room room

Figure 2.19 Video signal flow through EDA

C. Decoder
Decoder is a device that receives, demodulates and decodes transmitted television signals. It
converts the TV signal to a video signal, which can be viewed on a display device. It does the
reverse operation of an encoder, undoing the encoding so that the original information can be
retrieved. It is a device used to convert optical data to audio and video signals. The same method
used to encode is usually just reversed in order to decode.

D. Encoder
Is a device which converts audio/video signal‟s form from analog format to digital bit stream or
code, for the purpose of standardization, speed, manipulation, transportation or compression.
E. Modulator
This superimposed the incoming digital source from the encoder to locally generated carrier signal
to produce modulated IF signal out. Amhara TV use QPSK modulation.

2.3.2.3 Production Control room

PCR controls signal that came from the television studio to the control room.
A. Frame Synchronizer
Frame synchronizer is devices that will add an incoming signal from outside the studio to the
system in the company. Frame synchronizers embed/de-embed the incoming signals together they
also convert signals from analog to digital and SD to HD.

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B. Character Generator
A character generator is a device that produces static or animated text into a LIVE video stream.
A character generator adds characters or animated text to live video. A character generator can be
hardware or software based. Character generators are largely used during the broadcast of live
television presentations or events.

Figure 2.20 Character Generator

2.3.2.3 Master Control Room

Master control is the final point before a signal is transmitted over-the-air for terrestrial television
cablecast satellite provider for broadcast, or sent on to a cable television operator. Television
master control rooms include banks of video monitors, character generator, Video switcher, camera
control units satellite receivers, videotape machines, video servers, patch panels, Intercom, digital
video effect, television commercials equipment and more recently computer broadcast automation
equipment for recording and playback of television programming. The Master control room is the
place where the on-air signal is controlled. It may include controls to play out television programs
and television switch local or television networks feeds, record satellite feeds and monitor the
transmitter(s) or these items may be in an adjacent equipment rack room. If the program is
broadcast live, the signal goes from the PCR to MCR and then out to the transmitter.

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A. Audio/Video router
A video router is an electronic switch designed to route video signals from multiple input sources
such as cameras, computers and DVD players, to one or more display devices, such as monitors,
projectors, and TVs. An audio router is a device that transports audio signals from inputs to outputs.

B. Video switcher
A video switcher (It is also known as a vision mixer) is a hardware device used to switch or choose
between different video sources. It allows switching between multiple cameras while live
streaming. In radio audio is mixed in mixer and in television picture can be switched or mixed.
Video switcher receives multiple video inputs, performs signal processing on selected input
signals, and then outputs the processed video.
In video switching the transition of picture from one source to another source should be smooth as
much as possible. A transition is a change from one image to another. A mix is a transition from
one picture to another where the new picture fades in as the existing picture fades out .

Figure 2.21 Video Switcher

C. Multi-viewer
Multi-viewer is a device used to display multiple video sources on a single display monitor. It takes
different video sources either from studio cameras or other sources.

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Figure 2.22 Multi-viewer

2.3.2.4 Satellite Uplink and Down link chain

A television transmitter in television broadcasting is an electronic device that radiates radio waves
that carry a video signal representing moving images, along with a synchronized audio channel,
which is received by television receivers belonging to a public audience, which display the image
on a screen.
Television transmitter consists of video modulator and an Audio modulator. In video modulator
the video signal amplitude modulates RF carrier where as an Audio signal frequency modulates
another RF carrier in Audio modulator.
Video signal is generated by TV camera whereas Audio signal is produced by a microphone. Video
and audio signals are amplified in video and audio amplifiers before modulation. The modulated
signals are combined before they are applied to transmitting Aerial system.
Master oscillator is local oscillator that gives highly stable operation.

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Camera Video Amplitude RF

Amplifier Modulator amplifier

Combined Transmitter
Master
Oscillator (Embedded
)

MIC Audio Frequency RF

Amplifier Modulator Amplifier

Master
Oscillator

Figure 2.23 Overall TV transmission block diagram

Digital Satellite Uplink Chain

A transmission is sent from a station on Earth to the satellite. This signal is called an uplink. The
transmission has a powerful high frequency which is referred to as a "Gigahertz (GHz) range
signal".
Uplink frequency is the frequency at which, the first earth station is communicating with satellite.
The satellite transponder converts this signal into another frequency and sends it down to the
second earth station. This frequency is called as Downlink frequency.
In satellite communication, the uplink frequency is higher than the downlink frequency. Because
the attenuation level increase with an increase in frequency. The power at the ground station (Base
Station) is more than compared to the power available at the satellite.
To Satellite

Modulator Up Power
Satellite
Converter Amplifier
Dish

From source
Figure 2.24 Uplink satellite system

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Digital Satellite Downlink Chain

The satellite transmits a signal containing data. The signal is received at the satellite dish. The
signal is Amplified and fed to the down converter. The Down Converter down mixes the signal to
create an intermediate frequency. The intermediate frequency is fed to the demodulator and
converted into a data signal.

From Satellite

Satellite Dish Power Down Demodulator

Amplifier Converter

To router
Figure 2.25 Satellite downlink system

2.3.3 High power amplifier (HPA)

In order to get to satellite which is 36,000 kilometers above the earth, this weak signal which has
been modulated needs to be strengthened first. Hence Power Amplifiers highly increase power
level of the BUC output signal for transmit to satellite, typically RF power amplifier drives the
antenna of a transmitter also its need to increase the power to transmit it to the satellite due to
reduce the percentage of loss. The amplifier could be active power amplifiers or solid-state power
amplifier. The final powered microwave frequency goes to uplink antenna from HPA through
elliptical wave guide.

2.3.4 Antenna
An antenna is a device that is used to transfer guided electromagnetic waves (signals) to radiating
waves in an unbounded medium, usually free space, and vice versa. Antennas are frequency-
dependent devices. Each antenna is designed for a certain frequency band. Beyond the operating
band, the antenna rejects the signal. During transmission, the analog radio frequency electric
signals are converted by the antenna into electromagnetic radiation and spread in all directions in
the surrounding medium (air). An antenna receives electromagnetic radiation and converts it into

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radio frequency electrical signals on the receiver‟s end.In AMICO there are 2 antennas (1 for AM
and 1 for FM radio). Among different types of antenna, AMICO uses YAGIUDA antenna.

Figure 2.26 YAGI-UDA antenna

Parabolic dish antenna

Parabolic antenna is an antenna that uses a parabolic reflector, a curved surface with the
crosssectional shape of a parabola, to direct the radio waves. The most common form is shaped
like a dish and is popularly called a dish antenna or parabolic dish. The main advantage of a
parabolic antenna is that it has high directivity. It functions similarly to a searchlight or flashlight
reflector to direct the radio waves in a narrow beam, or receive radio waves from one particular
direction only. Parabolic antennas have some of the highest gains, that is, they can produce the
narrowest beam widths, of any antenna type. In order to achieve narrow beam widths, the parabolic
reflector must be much larger than the wave length of the radio waves used, so parabolic antennas
are used in the high frequency part of the radio spectrum.

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Figure 2.27 Parabolic dish antenna

This dish antenna holds a feed horn that consists of a flaring metal waveguide shaped like a horn
to direct radio waves in a beam. Horns are widely used as antennas at UHF and microwave
frequencies, above 300 MHz They are used as feed antennas (called feed horns) for larger antenna
structures such as parabolic antennas. As shown on the above parabolic antenna the feed horn is
conical type, i.e., a horn in the shape of a cone, with a circular cross section.

2.4 Major Duties during the Internship

Since AMECO is a media company and as we are communication and electronics engineering
student ,major duties on internship includes:
 Understand audio and video signal processing.
 Understand function and operation principle of radio and television studio equipment.
 Knowing production and transmission process.
 Understand and practice professionalism.

2.5 Challenges We Faced and Measures Taken to the Challenges

2.5.1 Challenges
While we were in the in tern ship we faced different challenges, among them the followings are:
 We couldn‟t find room sin the company to discussion group and to use internet.
 We couldn‟t find manuals regarding to the equipment and production process, mostly
they did not allow as operating equipment.
 The company did not allow us to use their transport service.

2.5.2 Measures
To overcome these challenges, we took some measurements.
 Using internet is the only method to get documents about equipment and their operation.

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CHAPTER THREE

Benefits Gained from Internship

During these four months of our internship program, it provided us a platform to introduce
ourselves with the working environment of the company and able to bridge the gap between student
life and professional life. We are highly benefited by working with professionals in the company.
The company has provided a conductive working atmosphere among the staffs. This has opened
doors for us to understand what is waiting for us when we finish our undergraduate studies at this
field. In our internship experience there were some basic skills we gained accordingly. Some of
the skills are: -
 Theoretical knowledge
 Practical skills
 Team playing Skill
 Interpersonal communication skills
 Leadership skills

3.1 Theoretical Knowledge

The internship program enables us to develop our theoretical knowledge. We develop our
knowledge by analyze working principle of the agency. Beside this, it helps us to gather the
relevant information which is important to understand the theory for practical application. In
addition to this we were able to develop our theoretical knowledge when we were trying to see
things practically.
We had already some theoretical knowledge in our study in the class about characters of radio and
television broadcasting. But since we start our internship work in AMC, we got a great chance to
see broadcasting in a broad sense. In the company we got a chance to upgrade our theoretical
knowledge. For instance, we knew about the functions of production equipment, general RADIO
and TV production process, understanding installation manuals, difference in between AM and
FM radio, understanding applications of different equipment and transmission process. Generally,
the intern period helped us by improving the theoretical knowledge that we were learned in the
class.

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3.2 Practical skills

Theoretical knowledge by itself is not that much enough to improve practical skill, but we try to
know some skills by relating the real world with a course that was taken theoretically for the past

four year. We have learned a lot of significant practical skills from our agency supervisors. They
were showing and teaching us what the equipment is? And how to do it?With adequate
explanation. The theoretical knowledge guides us to perform practices which enables us to gain
practical skills like parts and operations of microphone, controlling audio mixer, camera
controlling using OCP, operation of ACU, link antenna operation, controlling video mixer and the
whole communication system.

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3.3 Team Playing Skills

Team player is a person who plays or works well as member of a team. All for one is much better
than one for one. This team playing is very crucially important to improve our knowledge by
sharing of idea and lead us to see one thing in different angles and make us to be a multi directional
thinker for elaborating our knowledge regarding the given issue. Most of the tasks we have been
involved were completed as a group duty.
The intern ship helped us to develop our team playing skills like: - 
Sharing: offering ideas and reporting our findings to each other
 Respecting opinions: encouraging, listening and supporting the ideas and efforts of others
 Questioning: observing the students interacting, discussing, and posing questions to all
members of the team.
 Cooperation: mobilizing and initiate the team to work together

3.4 Interpersonal Skills

Almost all kind of work requires communicating with other persons to shares ideas. Really, we‟ve
been understood that without effective communication skills, any one can't succeed in the
workplace or anywhere. This internship program also gives us the interpersonal communication
skill in terms of many ways.
Which includes: -

 How to be a good listener first.

 How to approach persons with a comfortable way.
 How to communicate persons in formal way and with politely.
 How to reflect or present or forward our idea for anyone with a good facial expression.
 How to speak persons by limiting the sound level.

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3.5 Leadership Skills

Leadership is a great wisdom to mobilize, cooperate, initiate, and integrate the workers
with outstanding vision and clear plan. A person who is in the position of leadership
should be smart and enough ability to manage those individuals whom he/she is leading. A
good leadership found in AMECO directs the company to go forward and to see a bright
future. We have seen that leading accompany or a section is not a simple work rather it
needs so many leadership skills.
The internship program benefits us in acquiring basic leadership skills. This includes:
 Creating and managing the vision
 Making good decision
 Effective Communication
 Motivating and developing others
We believed that all of the above qualities make us to have a good leadership skill through
our short internship life.

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Part Two
INTERNSHIP PROJECT

CHAPTER FOUR

design and implementation of FM transmitter with two transistors

4.1 Abstract
This project enables to see the design and implementation of FM transmitter to ensure audio
signals in analog and digital waves with in a specific range. an FM transmitter is an electronic
device that generates and amplifies radio frequency signals in the frequency modulation
band .it used to transmit audio signals over the airwaves for broadcast to receivers within a
specific range.in this project use different components .these are Transiters, Capacitors,
Resisters, Amplifiers, Antenna and Oscillators . I understand the frequency responce ,
fourier analysis and digital oscilloscope of FM transmitter in PROTEUS simulation .the
most direct factor to affect the design and implementation of FM transmitter is frequency
selection.
KEY WORDS:- FM, CF, AS, Modulation

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4.2 Background and Introduction of the project

Frequency Modulation transmission is a popular method of broadcasting audio signals over
the airwaves. It's widely used in commercial radio stations, personal audio devices, and even
in some wireless microphones. The basic principle of FM transmission involves modulating
the frequency of a carrier wave with an audio signal, which is then transmitted over the
airwaves to be received by an FM receiver . The comparatively low cost of equipment for an FM
broadcasting station, resulted in rapid growth in the years following World War II. Within three
years after the close of the war, 600 licensed FM stations were broad casting in the United States
and by the end of the 1980s there were over 4,000. Similar trends have occurred in Britain and
other countries. Because of crowding in the AM broad cast band and the inability of standard AM
receiver to eliminate noise, the tonal fidelity of standard stations is purposely limited. FM does not
have drawbacks and therefore can be used to transmit music, reproducing the original performance
with a degree of fidelity that cannot be reached on AM bands. FM stereophonic broad casting has
drawn increasing numbers of listeners to popular as well as classical music, so that commercial
Fm broad caste transition specification FM stations draw higher audience ratings than AM stations.
Fm broad caste transition specification
Frequency band ( fc)… .................................................. ..88 -108MHz

Chanel band width ........................................................200kHz

Frequency stability ....................................................... ±2kHz

Frequency deviation (at 100%) ...................................... ±75kHz

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Frequency response… .................................................... 50Hz -15kHz

β....................................................................................5

Harmonics ....................................................................... <3.5%

Maximum power .............................................................. 100kw

4.3 Problem statement and justification
Designing and implementing an FM transmitter involves several technical challenges and
considerations that must be addressed to ensure a successful and reliable outcome.
Designing and implementing an FM transmitter is a complex engineering task that requires
a deep understanding of RF technology, modulation techniques, and regulatory standards.
Some of the key issues that arise in this process include: FM transmitters must maintain a
stable carrier frequency to ensure proper modulation and signal integrity. Any drifting or
instability in the frequency can lead to distortion and interference with other radio signals.
Achieving a high level of frequency stability requires precision components and design
techniques. Proper design of the RF circuitry, including the power amplifier and antenna
matching network, is crucial to ensure efficient transmission of the FM signal. Failure to
match the transmitter to the antenna impedance can result in poor signal quality and limited
range. Careful consideration must also be given to the radiation pattern of the antenna to
optimize coverage and minimize interference. The modulation process used in FM
transmission must be carefully implemented to ensure high signal quality and fidelity. Issues
such as noise, distortion, and channel interference can degrade the audio signal and impact
the overall performance of the transmitter. Designing a clean and robust modulation scheme
is essential for delivering a clear and reliable FM signal.FM transmitters can consume a
significant amount of power, especially in high-power applications. Efficient power
management and heat dissipation are critical to prevent overheating and ensure reliable
operation over extended periods. Careful consideration must be given to the selection of
components and thermal design to optimize power efficiency and maintain system.

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Addressing the technical challenges outlined above is essential to ensure the successful
operation of the transmitter and compliance with legal requirements. Failure to properly
design and implement the transmitter can result in poor signal quality, limited range,
regulatory violations, and potential interference with other radio service, By thoroughly
addressing each of these challenges during the design and implementation process,
engineers can develop a high-performance FM transmitter that delivers clear and reliable
audio signals while meeting legal requirements and operating efficiently. This
comprehensive approach is essential to achieving a successful outcome and ensuring the
long-term functionality of the transmitter in various operational environments.
4.4 Objective of the project
4.4.1 General objective
The main objective of this project is to design and implementation of FM transmitter.
4.4.2 Specific objective
 To stabilize frequency and accuracy
 To calculate each componnent value in the circuit
 To reduce noise

4.5 Significance of the Project

An FM transmitter is a device that broadcasts audio signals to meet various needs, such as
entertainment or communication. Here are some of the key significance of FM transmitters
:FM transmitters are commonly used in radio broadcasting to transmit music, news, and
other audio content to a wide audience. They can cover a larger area compared to AM
transmitters and offer better sound quality, making them a preferred choice for radio
stations.FM transmitters are used for various wireless communication applications, such as
wireless microphones, in-car audio systems, and outdoor speakers. They provide a
convenient way to transmit audio signals without the need for physical connections. FM
transmitters are used to broadcast emergency alerts and public announcements in case of
natural disasters, accidents, or other emergencies. They play a crucial role in disseminating
important information to the public quickly and efficiently Overall, FM transmitters play a
significant role in broadcasting, communication, emergency alerts, education, and personal

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entertainment, making them a versatile and essential technology in various industries and
everyday life.
4.6 Motivation of the project
Designing an FM transmitter can be a fascinating project, and here are some motivations to
work on it. Building an FM transmitter allows you to delve into the world of RF engineering,
understanding how to design and implement a wireless communication system. An FM
transmitter project involves processing audio signals, which can help you learn about audio
signal processing techniques, such as modulation, demodulation, and filtering. Designing an
FM transmitter requires overcoming various technical challenges, such as noise reduction,
frequency stability, and signal amplification, which can help improve your problem-solving
skills. This project involves working with electronic components, such as resistors,
capacitors, inductors, and transistors, which can help solidify your understanding of
electronics and circuit analysis.
4.7 Scope of the project
The scope of the project is to study the design and implementation of FM transmitter. An FM
transmitter is an electronic device that converts an audio signal into a radio frequency (RF)
signal, which is then transmitted over the airwaves. The scope of an FM transmitter can vary
depending on its design, power output, and intended application. Here are some common
scopes of FM transmitters. Low-power FM transmitters (typically up to 1 watt) are used for
personal, non-commercial purposes, such as broadcasting music or audio from a phone or
computer to a car stereo or home audio system. Medium-power FM transmitters (up to 10
watts) can be used to broadcast audio signals within a small area, such as a home, office, or
small business. Higher-power FM transmitters (up to 100 watts) are used by community
radio stations to broadcast to a local audience, often with a range of up to 10 miles (16
km).High-power FM transmitters (up to 100,000 watts) are used by commercial radio
stations to broadcast to a large audience, often with a range of up to 50 miles (80 km) or
more.FM transmitters are used in various applications, such as wireless microphones,
headphones, and speakers, to transmit audio signals wirelessly

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4.8 Methodology

This project deals with the design and implementation of FM transmitter using audio signal
processing, frequency modulation, oscillator circuit, modulator circuit and amplifier
antenna. and to show the result using PROTOUS simulator. based on the result this project
tries to design and implementation of FM transmitter.

Ltierature Understanding Collecting Select the

of the problem and organize method
Review

Result and Simulation System

conclusion using design
PROTOUS

Figure 4.1 methodology of the project

4.9 Literature Review
The first-ever idea of FM was coined by Edwin Amstrong in 1933, who gave the idea of Practical
Frequency Modulation Transmission, which was less vulnerable to noise with respect to AM [2].
It is almost a century now since the first-ever transmitter was launched in the market. With the
technological revolution the all the transmitting devices change their shapes, sizes, and operating
principals. The smart digitized FM transmitter is also one of them. Todays’ smart devices like
speakers, HD recorders, smart phones, cameras, and many other electronic gadgets are using Smart
Transceiver Sections. The transmitter and receiver units are having a wide range of applications
in all the spheres of the communication world. In A. Shrivastava [3] has implemented a low range
FM transmitter device with a limited range of coverage with low power amplifier units. In M.
Ahmed et al. [4] have proposed a joint receiver and transmitter section at 90 MHz of range. The
frequency fluctuations are limited and always near to the central frequency always. The frequency
away from the central frequency created a distortion in their case. However, in Bakare et al. [5]
have presented a comprehensive investigation of the RF Signal Strength of Love FM Transmitter
in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. The Signal measurement was carried out at different locations with the
aid of a GPS band scanner. A maximum distance of 6 km was chosen with respect to the North,

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South, East, and West of the Transmitter. In R. Singh et al. [6] have given a simple prototype of a
wireless FM transmitter. The frequency of operations has been chosen the FM range and the

operating principle has been explained suitably with proper schematics. Few works also have used
similar system models [7-9],

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4.10 Design and analsis

Frequency modulation is used for sound broad casting in the VHF bands for VHF and UHF mobile
systems and for wide band UHF and SHF radio relay systems.FM transmitters are used to generate
high frequency signal.

Block diagram of FM transmitter

Figure 4.2 Block diagram of FM transmitter

4.7.1 Audio input/ Microphone

Microphone is a transducer, which converts sound pressure variations in to electrical signals of
the same frequency and of amplitudes in the same proportion as a pressure variation.
Quality of a microphone is determined by the following characteristics:-Sensitivity, Signal to noise
ratio (SNR), Frequency response, and Distortion, Directivity and Output impedance.
These characteristics are defined as:-

4.7.1.1 Sensitivity
It is defined as output in mill volts (in DB below volt) for the sound pressure of one micro bar
(0.1pa)at 1000Hz. As the normal level of speech provides sound pressure of 1micro bar, the sensitivity
based on these criteria is more appropriate and has been used. For instance, sensitivity
of microphone is 120dB below 1 volt, and its output becomes 20log (1/Eo) =120

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therefore,
1/Eo =10-6=1µv.
4.10.1 .2 Signal -to -noise ratio (SNR)
It is generated inside the microphone due to resistance of the circuit, built in transformer, etc.it is
represented in terms sound pressure, which would give the same output as the noise output. The
output is measured by passing it through a weighting filter, which accounts for the reduced
sensitivity of the ear at high and low audio frequencies. S/N=20log (output in the pressure of
sound /output in the absence of sound)
4.10.1.3 Frequency response
The Frequency response of a micro phone is defined by the band width of audio frequencies in
the out of micro phone plus or minus of the out at 1000Hz. although the complete audio
frequencies range of sound is 16 to 20hz,a micro phone which gives flat response within plus or
minus dB for frequencies 40-to-15Hz is considered good for high fidelity audio systems
4.10.1 .4 Distortion
Besides frequency distortion (un-even frequency response) described above, the microphone has
two types of distortion these are:
None linear distortion: distorts the amplitude of the audio signal ,which results in production of
such harmonics in the output that are not present in the input sound for quality microphones ,
such distortion should be less than 5% . For high fidelity sound systems, distortion should not be
more than 1%.
Phase distortion: may cause change of phase relationships between components of a complex
sound wave. It occurs when multiple microphones are used causing relative path from the source
sound.
4.10.1 .5 Directivity
It is defined with the help of a polar diagram. The angle for half power points in a polar diagram
represents directivity of a microphone
Mathematically, microphone is defined as the ratio of actual output when placed in a direction of
maximum response to the output which an Omni directional microphone in the same direction
would have given, keeping the intensity of sound constant
D=E/Eo in dB, D=20logD

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Where, E= actual output in the direction of maximum output

Eo= output in that direction has the microphone been directional.Omni
D= directivity

.
4.10.1 .6 Output impedance
A microphone has output impedance, which is represented in a ohms. This is an important
parameter which is used to determine which type of matching transformer would be needed to
transfer the power efficiently from , microphone to the transmitting line and then to the
amplifier. some microphones like dynamic microphones have quite low output impedance, and
therefore have built in step up transformer match line impedance.
4.10.2 Design of pre –emphasis
The circuits are the transmitting side of the frequency modulator. It is used to increase the gain of
the higher frequency component as the input signal frequency increased, the impendence of the
collector voltage increase. If the signal frequency is lesser then the impendence decrease which
increase the collector current and hence decrease the voltage
ω1 =1/rc .................................(1)
ω2=1/RC ............................ (2)
ω1 and ω2 is break frequency. For FM broad cast purpose, the lower break frequency f1 is about
2.1 kHz and the higher break frequency f2 is chosen to be much higher than the highest
frequency term in the message band, so that f2 lies outside the baseband spectral range.
For audio rang, f2 may be taken as 30 KHz
ω1 =1/rc let c=10µF & f1 =2.1 kHz
2πf1=1/rc =1/r*10µF
r =1/2πf1 (10µF)

r=1/2*3.14*2.1k*10µF
r=1/2*3.14*2.1*10-3Ω
r =1/131.95*10-3Ω
r=0.007578628kΩ ≈7.58Ω or 8Ω

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ω2=1/RC let c=10µF & f2 =30 kHz

2πf2=1/RC
2*π*30 kHz = 1/R*10µF

R=1/2π*30 kHz*10µF

R=1/2π*30*10m F

R=1/1884.95m
R=0.000530516k Ω ≈0.53Ω
4.10.3 Designing of an oscillator

Oscillators are necessary in any low power transmitter because they generate a necessary RF
signal. The Colpitt’s oscillator is designed for generation of high frequency sinusoidal
oscillations .Colpitt's oscillator is same as Hartley oscillator except for one difference. Instead of
using a tapped inductance, Colpitt's oscillator uses a tapped capacitance. The circuit diagram of
Colpitt’s oscillator using BJT is shown in Fig. It consists of an R-C coupled amplifier using an np-
n transistor in CE configuration. R1 and R2 are two resistors which form a voltage divider bias
to the transistor. A resistor RE is connected in the circuit which stabilizes the circuit against
temperature variations. A capacitor CE is connected in parallel with RE, acts as a bypass
capacitor and provides a low reactive path to the amplified ac signal. The coupling capacitor CC
blocks dc and provides an ac path from the collector to the tank circuit.[1]
The feedback network (tank circuit) consists of two capacitors C1 and C2 (inseries) which placed
across a common inductor L. The centre of the two capacitors is tapped (grounded). The
feedback network (C1, C2 and L) determines the frequency of oscillation of the oscillator. The
two series capacitors C1, and C2 form the potential divider led for providing the feedback
voltage. The voltage developed across the capacitor C2 provides regenerative feedback which is
essential for sustained oscillations. There are different type’s oscillator configuration such as

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Hartley, Winebridg, colipits and other. Because of good stability and high resonant frequency
operation so we take colippit oscillator. When the collector supply voltage Vcc is switched on,
collector current starts rising and charges the capacitors C1 and C2. When these capacitors are
fully charged, they discharge through coil L setting up damped harmonic oscillations in the tank
circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces an a.c. voltages across C1, C2. The
oscillations across C2 are applied to base-emitter junction of the transistor and appears in the
amplified form in the collector circuit and overcomes the losses occurring in the tank circuit. The
feedback voltage
( across the capacitor C2) is 180° out of phase with the output voltage ( across the capacitor C1),
as the centre of the two capacitors is Grounded.

Formula: the frequency of oscillation the oscillator f= 1/2pi(LC)^1/2

Where L = Self inductance of the coil (H)

C = Capacitance of the condenser (F)

C=C1C2/C1+C2
C1, C2 = capacitances of the two capacitors in the tank circuit.
4.10.4 Modulator

An RF modulator (or radio frequency modulator) is a device that takes a baseband input signal
and outputs a radio frequency-modulated signal.

4.10.5 Design procedure for CE power amplifier

1. Selection of transistor: select the transistor according to the frequency of operation,

power requirement and hfe. For example PN3563 (TO-92) has frequency of operation up
to 600MHz, hfe <200 and wattage=310mW. There for, the transistor must be selected in
such way that the minimum hfe should be greater than or equal to the Av required.

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2. Selection of the supply voltage VCC and setting of quotient voltage VCEQ :
The supply voltage vcc must be selected in- such a way that the quotient voltage VCEQ ≤50%
VCC should give distortion less output and protect from thermal stability. This means, the
output voltage swing in either positive or negative direction with half of VCC. Therefore, the
design criteria is

VCEQ≤ VCC/2
Let VCC =12V
4. The data sheet: go through the data sheet and make note of the important parameters.
From the data sheet of TO-92, we can find the following specifications.
Maximum rating: VCB=30V, VCE=12v, VEB=4v, IC=50mA
5.
Normal rating: VCE=10v, IC=8mA, hfe=20 to 200

4. Selection of the collector current IC: collector current will be given in data sheet.
Normally the collector current of the power amplifier will be at ampere range; however
those of normal transistors will be at mA range. Collector current IC is the biased current
at which hfe is measured. Therefore, the collector current IC is selected based up on hfe
which is obtained from the datasheet. In this design, let we select IC =8mA.
5. DC biasing condition: As a design criteria, normally,40%VCC is allocated for the
collector resistor RC , 50%VCC is allocated for the quotient drop VCEQ and 10% VCC is
allocated for the emitter resistor RE. therefore, the design criterion is

VC ≥40%VCC =0.4 VCC=0.4× 12=4.8v VCEQ ≤ 50%VCC=0.5× VCC=0.5×12=6v

VE ≤10 %VCC =0.1×12=1.2v

6. Design of RE: therefore, the emitter resistor should be RE =VE/IE≤ 1.2

7.
8×10-3 ≤ 0.15Kῼ. Where, VE ≤VCC/10≤0.1×12=1.2v
8. Design of RC: the collector resistor should be RC ≥ 0.4VCC/IC ≥ 4.8
9.
8×10-3 ≥ 600ῼ

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8. Design of voltage divider or biasing resistors R1 and R2: the value of IB is

obtained using the relation IB=IC/hfe(min) =8*ma/20 =0.4mA. However for better design, the
current flowing through the resistor R1 should be 10IB.With this assumption, 9IB flows
through the resistor R2. Now the values of R1 and R2 can be calculated from the DC
potential created by the respective currents.[6]

Voltage across R2:V2=9IB×R2=VBE+VE=0.7+1=1.7V

Or 9× 0.4 ×10-3 ×R2=1.7V

R2= 1.7V/9×0.4×10-3=0.47kῼ
Voltage across R1=VCC-V2=10IB× R1

Or 10v-1.7v=10×8×10-3×R1

R1= 8.7V/10×8×10-3=8.7/80kῼ= 108.7ῼ

9. Design of RL: the voltage gain of the CE amplifier can be obtained by using the relation
Av=rc/re=-rc||rl/re but re=25mv/IE =25mv/8mA=3.125ῼ
Let the required gain be 100 (i.e. Av=100). Substituting back we get
100= -RcRl/RcRl/12.5 using cross multiplication we get

500RI/500+Rl =-1250RL=414ῼ

10. Design of coupling capacitor C1and C2: the purpose of the coupling capacitor is to
couple the AC signal to the input of the amplifier and block DC. it also isolates the input
signal source and the voltage divider network. The value of the coupling capacitor CC is
set in such a way that the reactance XC at the lowest frequency(say 104.5MHz) , should
be equal to one tenth or less of the series impedance that is being driven by the signal
passing through the capacitor. That is XC ≤Rin/10
Design of coupling capacitor C1:

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XC ≤Rin/10
But, Rin=R1 || R2|| hie =108.7 || 470 || 20=1.7kῼ

Therefore, 1/2piFC1 =1/2pi 104.5M*C1=≤ 1.7kῼ/10

∴ C1≥8.9*10-12 F ≈8.9pF

Design of coupling capacitor C2:

XC2 ≤Rout/10
But, Rout=RC= 600ῼ
Therefore, 1/2pifc2=1/2pi*104.5MHZ*c2=≤ 600ῼ/10 C2 ≥ 2.54uF

11. Design of the emitter by-pass capacitor CE: the purpose of the by- pass capacitor is
to bypass the signal currents to the ground. To bypass lowest frequency component the
reactance XE at the lowest frequency (say 104.5MHz) , should be equal to one tenth of
less of the emitter resistance.[6] That is

XCE ≤ RE/10 =0.1RE =0.1*1500ῼ=150ῼ

Therefore,1/2pifCE=1/2pi*104.5*CE =≤150ῼ

CE ≥ 0.1p F

12. Calculate the signal resistance in the base leg (rb).

rb = Rb1 || Rb2 = 108.7 ῼ || 0.47k ῼ = 88 ῼ

13. Multiply the emitter leg signal resistance times beta. (Assume beta equals

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20.)
Beta*Re=200 × 3.125 = 625 ῼ
14. Calculate the circuit input impedance by finding the parallel equivalent of
the signal
base resistance and the signal emitter path resistance.

zin = rb ||β re =88||625 =77.14 ῼ

15. Calculate the output impedance.

zout = Rc = 600 ῼ
16. The voltage gain of the common emitter amplifier is

Av = rc/re,

Av= 600/3.125

=192
4.10.6 Antennas

The final stage of any transmitter is the antenna; this is where the electronic FM is converted to
electromagnetic waves, which are radiated into the atmosphere.

Antennas can be vertically or horizontally polarized, which determined by their relative

poison with the earth’s surface (i.e antenna parallel with the ground is horizontally polarized)
A transmitting antenna that is horizontally polarized transmits a better to a receiving antenna
that is also horizontally polarized, this is also true for vertically polarized antennas.
4.10.6.1 Design of antenna length

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If an audio frequency is translated to a radio frequency carrier 104.5 MHz, the antenna height
required will be

lamda/2 but lamda=C/F==2.87m

L==2.87m/2
L=1.43m So, this antenna height can be practically achieved
4.10.6.2 Design of antenna cross sectional area

the electrical resistance of a wire would be expected to be greater for a longer wire, less for a
wire of larger cross sectional area, and would be expected to depend upon the material out of
which the wire is made (resistivity). Experimentally, the dependence upon these properties is a
straightforward one for a wide range of conditions, and the resistance of a wire can be expressed
as
R= pl/A Where,

R is the electrical resistance of copper (Ω )

P is the resistivity of conductor material (Ω m)

L is length of copper (m)

A=Pl/R=1.43m*1.68*10-8/600 =40.04*10-6 mm2
D==40.04*10-6 mm2/3.14= 12.75∗ 10-6 mm
Radius(r) =6.375 ∗ 10-6 mm
4.10.6.3 Radiation resistance

The power radiated by an antenna is give by the pointing vector theorem lamda =E*H watt/m2
.getting the cross product of E(electric field strength) and H (magnetic field strength) fields,
multiply by a certain area(pi.r2) ant equating the resulting power to I2.Rr , Rr the radiation
resistance may be obtained.

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I^2.Rr=power=80pi^2.I^2(l/lamda)^n
Rr=80.pi^2(l/lamda)^2
Where l is the length of the antenna,lamda is the wave length and n is an exponent value that can
be found by using (l/lamda) on the y- axis and then can found on the x-axis For l half wave length
,n is found to be 3.2 , l= 1.43m, λ= 2.87m then when we substitute this

values into the following formula we get

Rr=80.pi^2(l/lamda)^n
Rr=80.pi^2(1.43/2.87)^3.2 Ω
Rr = 78.9 Ω
4.10.6.4 Impedance matching

Between the final power amplifier of the transmitter and the antenna, an impedance matching
network may be considered. One of the possible surprises in power amplifiers is the realization.
That out put impedance matching is not based onn the maxumem power crateria.one reason for
this , is the fact that matching the load to the device out put impedance results in power transfer
at 50% efficiency. The purpose of the impedance network is to transform a load impedance to an
impedance approprite ro optimum curcuit operation.
Here's an example of a simple FM transmitter circuit using a PLL and VCO:
R1:86kΩ
R2: 10kΩ
C1: 2.2nF
C2: 1uF

L1: 120uH
Q1: BC108
Q2:2N2369
B1:12v
PLL Circuit:
R3: 3.3kΩ

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R4: 2.2kΩ
C3: 4.7nF
C4: 1uF
VCO Circuit:
R5: 100Ω
C5: 2.2nF
C6: 10pF
C7:10pF
C8:100pF
FM Transmitter Output:
C9:100pF
Antenna
This is a basic example, and I need to modify the circuit to suit with specific requirements.
Additionally, I may need to add more components or stages to achieve the desired frequency
and accuracy specifications.

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Figure 4.3 FM transmitter circuit

the first transistor thus performs the job of amplifying that signal to a level good enough

for transmission. After amplification as described earlier, the next stage of the FM

transmitter is modulation. At this stage the amplified audio signal is then mixed with the

carrier frequency at with which the signal is to be transmitted. This carrier frequency can

be varied using the 20pF variable capacitor connected with the inductor, and the typical

frequency band of this particular design is between the 88MHz to 108MHz

The pre-amplifying stage consists of the NPN transistor where there is abiasing resistor R1
between collector and the base to provide feedback path and collector current is controlled
through resistor R2.Capacitor c1 is connected between the base of the transistor and the
microphone which impedes the different frequency that are present in the input audio
signal.C10 is the bypass capacitor that provides low impedance path, which allows the noise
to pass by to the ground. using the battery for powering the circuit improve the overall
performance of the circuit and reduces the noise in the circuit . C9 is an electrolytic capacitor
that couples the output from the pre-Amplifying stage to the oscillator cum modulator stage.
One of the novel features of my circuit is that I have used another transistor in the oscillator
stage as well with suitable biasing resistors and coupling capacitors for further amplification

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of the modulated signal that will be transmitted to antenna to increase the range of the
transmitter to a few kilometers and it will also improve the overall power output of the
circuit as we will see later and it makes the circuit more immune to the noise as well. Here I
have the tank circuit that consists of the LC circuit which is necessary for creating oscillation.
It controls the transmission frequency of the transmitter as we know , F=1/2pi(LC)^1/2.
C5 is a trimmer capacitor that is used for adjusting the overall range of the transmitter .
modulated signal is available at the output of Q2. Which is then coupled to the antenna using
the coupling capacitor C6. So now I have performed the frequency and fourier analysis of the
output spectrum with respect to the input signal.
stabilize frequency and accuracy
Stabilizing frequency and accuracy is crucial for the design and implementation of an FM
transmitter.
Frequency Stabilization:
I Use a high-quality crystal oscillator as the frequency reference. This will provide a stable
frequency source. Implement a PLL circuit to lock the oscillator frequency to a precise value.
This will ensure that the frequency remains stable and accurate. I Use a VCO to generate the
desired frequency. The VCO should be designed to operate within a narrow frequency range
to minimize frequency drift.
Accuracy Improvement :
I Use high-quality components, such as low-tolerance resistors and capacitors, to minimize
component variations and ensure accuracy. Implement temperature compensation to
minimize the effects of temperature changes on the oscillator frequency and Perform
calibration during the manufacturing process to ensure that the transmitter meets the
desired frequency and accuracy specifications.
modulation index and deviation for your transmitter, you can design the FM modulator
circuit. This will typically consist of a phase modulator using a Voltage Controlled Oscillator
(VCO) followed by frequency modulating amplifiers to boost the signal.
To reduce noise

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FM systems are far better at rejecting noise than AM systems. Noise generally is spread
uniformly across the spectrum (the so-called white noise, meaning wide spectrum). The
amplitude of the noise varies randomly at these frequencies. The change in amplitude can
actually modulate the signal and be picked up in the AM system. As a result, AM systems are
very sensitive to random noise. An example might be ignition system noise in your car. Special
filters need to be installed to keep the interference out of your car radio.
FM systems are inherently immune to random noise. In order for the noise to interfere, it would
have to modulate the frequency somehow. But the noise is distributed uniformly in frequency
and varies mostly in amplitude. As a result, there is virtually no interference picked up in the FM
receiver. FM is sometimes called "static free,” referring to its superior immunity to random
noise.
4.8 Result and discussion
After conducting the work, we have seen the following different properties.

Figure 4.4 Frequency response of FM transmitter

Where I can see the peak of the spectrum is achieved around 90 MHZ. and on the Y scale .I
can see that that gain is around 1.4 kilo. Now here I can see the gain of the frequency

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spectrum in the decibel scale and I can see it is more than 60 dB. Which is very efficient for
such a circuit.

Figure 4.5 Fourier response of FM transmitter

Now other novel features in my circuit include that I have performed the fourier analysis of
the spectrum where as amplitude of the modulated signal is changed, the spectrum of the
FM signal changes which is mainly determined by the Bessel function where the parameter
is the modulation index.

Now we will run the simulation and I can see that the output voltage of the Nodes by the
help of voltage probes.

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Figure 4.6 digital oscilloscope of FM transmitter

Here I can have the digital oscilloscope where I can see that the channel A is connected to the
input sine wave and at channel B, very small waves can be see as frequency modulation only
effects the carrier frequency and the transmission is single side band based on frequency
spectrum.

So the amplitude in the output is reduced significantly and the voltage amplitude of the
output does not affect the working of the transmitter. So in my circuit the transmitter has a
very significant use as an amplifier since the sound signal that is converted to an alternating
signal by the microphone has a very low power. In conclusion the FM transmitter with a
variable inductor design was a success. The FM transmitter was able to broadcast at frequency
90MHz. A lot was learned from the experiment
without the aid of a variable inductor schematic. Even though much guidance was given from
other schematics, it still took some time to complete the final project. Also a better understanding
of BJT transistors, amplifiers, modulators, oscillators, capacitors and inductors were developed.

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In addition, a better understanding of the oscilloscope was also achieved. The mastering of
horizontal and vertical position controls to find the output frequency took some patience. In the
future, an oscilloscope could be used to find the precise frequency. Also, better components and
a higher voltage supply would allow for a larger transmitting distance
4.8.1 conclusion
this project is focus on the design and implementation of FM transmitter. FM transmitter is
an electronic device that generates and amplifies radio frequency signals in the frequency
modulation band. the design and implementation of an FM transmitter involves a careful
selection of components and a clear understanding of frequency modulation principles. The
process encompasses circuit design, signal generation, and modulation techniques to ensure
efficient transmission and minimal interference. By adhering to regulatory standards and
optimizing the transmitter's performance, it is possible to achieve high-quality audio
transmission over varying distances. Overall, successful implementation not only enhances
communication capabilities but also serves as a valuable educational experience in
electronics and radio frequency.
CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusion
As it is known, the main goal of internship program is to integrate the theoretically acquired
concepts with a tangible practical demonstration.
As such, technology students are more effective in achieving the intended learning skill as I have
developed their practical skill in addition to these, I have known theoretically knowledge.
Therefore, the internship program must be continuous since it has a pivoted role idea a full ready
skill besides enabling students to be self-confident. General speaking during the internship
program a lot of knowledge and skills have been gained. This program helps students to develop
practical knowledge that can be applied in the real world, how to solve the problems related to any
professional areas, how to meet challenges. That probably encounters the intern in the future.
Moreover, as it is explained above, the internship program has its own advantage on leadership
skill, work ethics and other crosscutting issues.

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5.2 Recommendations
This internship program creates a good opportunity to integrate the students with the company
through the university. Even if they have their own purpose and strength, Irealized some
limitation and drawbacks that limit us to go further. In order to overcome this drawback, I want
to deliver the following recommendations to Amhara mass media agency, Since the company has
good outlooks, attitudes and respect for intern's, the intern suggest that the company must keep up
as it great success and necessary for the interns. And my university (i.e. university industrial
linkage and my department) for the future better internship program.
1. Recommendation for AMMC

2. Recommendation for Department

3. Recommendation for University industrial linkage (UIL)

Recommendation for AMMC

 The company should support interns by delivering free transport service.

 The company should give proper attention and respect for interns.

 The company should be considered the student as a part of staff and give permission to see
every room they want.

 By giving detail training for students(interns) about devices used in different sections, it is
better to give a chance to practice on the devices,

 The companies should assign professionals who have deep technical knowledge in the
section of the company for the interne students.

 Technicians do not have enough knowledge about the devices and over all operation so the
company should prepare tutorials and educational opportunities for technicians.

 The company should be ready for internship students by preparing project tasks and
workshop classes to give better experiences.

 The company has enough equipment.

 It plays a critical role to contribute community

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Recommendation for the Department

 The department should pay attention for the order of courses to be given which are
supportive and major courses for the interns, like courses related to antenna, wireless
communication.

 It is better to cross check those interns periodically by their academic advisors to

understand their problems and to know the situation.

 Before the intern period is arrive the department should create relation with the company
what the students want to apply (Ethio telecom, ELPA, etc).

 Should make sure that students are achieving the goals of the internship program as
required.
Recommendation for the UIL
 Try to announce the host company earlier as much as possible.

 Have to be transparent and open minded for all students fairly.

 Should increase the allowance money with relative to the current market condition, since
it is not good enough to lead our life.

 But the technician does not have enough manual or module. The company has to prepare
enough manual/ handout and give it out to technician for the future and the company
 must put the copy of the manual in the library, so that technician can use of them whenever
necessary.
References
[1],www.ammc.gov.com.
[2] , Erickson Don V. Armstrong's fight for FM broadcasting: one man vs big business and
bureaucracy, University of Alabama Press; 2012
[3] ,Shrivastava, Abhishek. Design and development of low-range frequency modulated signal
(F.M.) transmitter. BIBECHANA. 2017
[4] ,Ahmed Mostak, Das S, Mojid, M. Design of a FM transmitter and receiver operates at 90 MHz
green global foundation. Institutional Engineering and Technology (IET) © Design Of A Fm
Transmitter And Receiver Opetates At 90 Mhz. 2016;

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[5] , Bakare Bodunrin, Nwakpang F, Desire A. Propagation analysis of radio frequency (RF) signal
of love FM transmitter in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. 2019;
[6]. Ranjana Singh, Nidhi. Design and working of fm transmitter. International Journal Of Advance
Research In Science And Engineering-IJARSE. 2013
[7] , Islam MM, Hossain T, Akman W, Sultan MZ, Kabir H. simulation and analysis of signal
transmission through SMF and DCF for wireless communication. Institutional Engineering and
Technology. 2015
[8] , Ogbuanya TC, Sule Abu, Bakare J. The design and construction of a frequency modulated
(fm) transmitter with output capacity of 10 watts and range above 4km. International Journal of
Applied Engineering Research. 2017 .
[9] , Ryu, Jeong-Tak Ryu, Kyung Ki Kim. MiniFM Transmitter with a Built-In Antenna and a
Built-In Storage Battery. Embedded and Multimedia Computing Technology and Service,
Springer Netherlands. 2012

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