CHAPTER 3- CELL STRUCTURES and THEIR FUNCTIONS

CELL MEMBRANE MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

CELL TRUCTURE • is the outermost component of a cell. • The cell membrane has selective permeability,
• It forms a boundary between material in which allows only certain substances to pass in
ORGANELLES inside the cell and the outside. and out of the cell.
• specialized structures in cells that perform • Materials inside the cell are intracellular
specific functions and those outside are extracellular. • Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and
Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes • It acts as a selective barrier potassium are found in higher concentrations
inside the cell.
CYTOPLASM • Substances such as sodium, calcium, and
CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
• jelly-like substance that holds organelles chloride are found in higher concentrations
• The FLUID-MOSAIC MODEL is the model outside the cell.
used to describe the cell membrane
CELL MEMBRANE structure. CELL MEMBRANE PASSAGES
• also termed the plasma membrane • The membrane contains PHOSPHOLIPIDS,
• a structure that encloses the cytoplasm • Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass
CHOLESTEROL, PROTEINS, and
directly through the cell membrane’s
CARBOHYDRATES.
phospholipid bilayer.
• Phospholipids form a bilayer.
• Phospholipids contain 2 regions: POLAR • Some substances must pass through
and NONPOLAR transmembrane protein channels, such as Na+
through its channels.

• The route of transport through the membrane

PHOSPHOLIPIDS STRUCTURE depends on the size, shape, and charge of the
• A phospholipid molecule has a polar head
substance.
region that is hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail
region that is hydrophobic. • Some substances require carrier molecules to
• The polar region is exposed to water transport them across the cell membrane, such
around the membrane. as glucose.
• The nonpolar region is facing the interior of
the membrane. • Some substances require a vesicular transport
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL across the membrane.
•Smallest units of life
•Cell metabolism and energy use • The vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane
•Synthesis of molecules for transport.
•Communication
•Reproduction and inheritance

ACTIVE TRANSPORT and PASSIVE TRANSPORT

ACTIVE MEMBRANE PASSIVE MEMBRANE the concentration of a solute in a solvent -depends on the difference of solution
TRANSPORT TRANSPORT between two points divided by the distance concentrations inside a cell relative to
-does require the cell -does not require the between the two points. outside the cell.
to expend energy, cell to expend
usually in the form of energy. The concentration gradient is said to be -A cell may be placed in solutions that are
ATP. -transport steeper when the concentration difference is either HYPOTONIC, ISOTONIC, or
-transport mechanisms include large and/or the distance is small. HYPERTONIC compared to the cell
mechanisms include diffusion, osmosis, cytoplasm.
active transport, and facilitated
secondary active diffusion.
LEAK AND GATED CHANNELS
transport,
HYPOTONIC
endocytosis, and
Lipid soluble substances can diffuse directly A hypotonic solution has a lower
exocytosis.
through the phospholipid bilayer. concentration of solutes and a higher
Water-soluble substances, such as ions, can concentration of water relative to the
diffuse across the cell membrane only by cytoplasm of the cell.
DIFFUSION
passing through cell membrane channels.
-generally involves movement of substances The solution has less tone, or osmotic
in a solution down a concentration gradient. pressure, than the cell.
LEAK CHANNELS GATED CHANNELS
A SOLUTION is generally composed of two -constantly allow -limit the movement
major parts, SOLUTES and SOLVENT. ions to pass through. of ions across the Water moves by osmosis into the cell,
membrane by causing it to swell.
opening and closing.
Solutes are substances dissolved in a If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a
predominant liquid or gas, which is called the process called LYSIS.
solvent.
OSMOSIS
Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to -is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a
move from an area of higher concentration of selectively permeable membrane from a ISOTONIC
a solute to an area of lower concentration of region of higher water concentration to one A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has
that same solute in solution. of lower water concentration. the same solute concentrations inside and
outside the cell.
This movement from high concentration to a -exerts a pressure, termed OSMOTIC
low concentration is diffusion. PRESSURE, which is the force required to The cell will neither shrink nor swell.
prevent movement of water across cell
membrane

CONCENTRATION GRADIENT OSMOTIC PRESSURE AND THE CELL

A concentration gradient is the difference in
 HYPERTONIC FACILITATED DIFFUSION SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated Secondary active transport uses the energy
solution has a lower solute concentration and transport process that moves substances provided by a concentration gradient
higher water concentration than the across the cell membrane from an area of established by the active transport of one
surrounding solution. higher concentration to an area of lower substance, such as Na+ to transport other
concentration of that substance. substances.
Water moves by osmosis from the cell into
the hypertonic solution, resulting in cell Because movement is with the concentration No additional energy is required above the
shrinkage, or crenation. gradient, metabolic energy in the form of ATP energy provided by the initial active transport
is not required. pump.

In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves

CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT in the same direction as the initial active
Some water-soluble, electrically charged or ACTIVE TRANSPORT transported substance.
large sized particles cannot enter or leave Active transport is a carrier-mediated
through the cell membrane by diffusion. process, requiring ATP, that moves In counter transport, the diffusing substance
substances across the cell membrane from moves in a direction opposite to that of the
These substances include amino acids, regions of lower concentration to those of initial active transported substance.
glucose, and some polar molecules produced higher concentration against a concentration
by the cell. gradient.

Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell Active transport processes accumulate ENDOCYTOSIS
membrane involved in carrier-mediated necessary substances on one side of the cell is a process that that brings materials into
transport. membrane at concentrations many times cell using vesicles.
greater than those on the other side.
Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms
include facilitated diffusion and Active RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
transport. occurs when a specific substance binds to the
SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP receptor molecule and is transported into the
Facilitated diffusion does not require ATP for A major example of active transport is the cell.
energy. action of the sodium-potassium pump
present in cell membranes.
PHAGOCYTOSIS
Active transport does require ATP for
The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out is often used for endocytosis when solid
transport.
of cells and K+ into cells particles are ingested.

The result is a higher concentration of Na+

PINOCYTOSIS
outside cells and a higher concentration of K+
has much smaller vesicles formed, and they
inside cells.
contain liquid rather than solid particles.
 The nuclear membrane contains nuclear RIBOSOMES
pores, through which materials can pass into Ribosome components are produced in the
EXOCYTOSIS or out of the nucleus. nucleolus.
involves the use of membrane-bound sacs
called SECRETORY VESICLES that accumulate The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins
materials for release from the cell. chromosomes which consist of DNA and are produced.
proteins.
The vesicles move to the cell membrane and Ribosomes may be attached to other
fuse, ultimately releasing the material by During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes organelles, such as the endoplasmic
exocytosis. are loosely coiled and collectively called reticulum.
CHROMATIN
Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of Ribosomes that are not attached to any other
digestive enzymes. When a cell prepares to divide, the organelle are called free ribosomes.
chromosomes become tightly coiled and are
visible when viewed with a microscope.
GENERAL CELL STRUCTURE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, which are
The interior of a cell is composed of the The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of
diffuse bodies with no surrounding
cytoplasm, which a jelly-like fluid that membranes forming sacs and tubules that
membrane. that are found within the nucleus
surrounds the organelles. extends from the outer nuclear membrane
There are usually one to several nucleoli into the cytoplasm.
Organelles are specialized structures that
within the nucleus.
perform certain functions. The ROUGH ER is involved in protein
The subunits of ribosomes, a type of synthesis and is rough due to attached
Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes, ribosomes.
cytoplasmic organelle, are formed within a
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
nucleolus.
lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, The SMOOTH ER has no attached ribosomes
cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, flagella, and and is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular
These ribosomal components exit the
microvilli. detoxification, and it stores calcium ions in
nucleus through nuclear pores
skeletal muscle cells.

CELL NUCLEUS
The nucleus is a large organelle usually
located near the center of the cell.

The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear

envelope, which consists of outer and inner
membranes with a narrow space between
them.
 GOLGI APPARATUS hydrogen. Microtubules are hollow structures formed
The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi from protein subunits.
complex, consists of closely packed stacks of
curved, membrane-bound sacs. The microtubules perform a variety of roles,
MITOCHONDRIA including helping to support the cytoplasm of
It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are cells, assisting in cell division, and forming
proteins and lipids manufactured by the ER. small organelles responsible for producing essential components of certain organelles,
considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic such as cilia and flagella.
The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of (with O2) metabolism.
which are secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and
other vesicles. They have inner and outer membranes
separated by a space. MICROFILAMENTS
Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from
The outer membranes have a smooth protein subunits that structurally support the
LYSOSOMES contour, but the inner membranes have cytoplasm, determining cell shape.
Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles numerous folds, called cristae, which project
formed from the Golgi apparatus. into the interior of the mitochondria. Some microfilaments are involved with cell
movement.
They contain a variety of enzymes that The material within the inner membrane is
function as intracellular digestive systems. the mitochondrial matrix and contains Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the
enzymes and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). cells to shorten, or contract.
Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse
with lysosomes in order to breakdown Cells with a large energy requirement have
materials in the endocytotic vesicles. more mitochondria than cells that require
less energy. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
One example is white blood cells Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed
phagocytizing bacteria. from protein subunits that are smaller in
diameter than microtubules but larger in
CYTOSKELETON diameter than microfilaments.
The cytoskeleton gives internal framework to
PEROXISOMES the cell. They provide mechanical support to the cell.
Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound
vesicles containing enzymes that break down It consists of protein structures that support A specific type of intermediate filament is
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen the cell, hold organelles in place, and enable keratin, a protein associated with skin cells.
peroxide (H2O2). the cell to change shape.

Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty These protein structures are

acid and amino acid breakdown and can be MICROTUBULES, MICROFILAMENTS, and
toxic to a cell. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS.
The enzymes in peroxisomes break down MICROTUBULES
 CENTRIOLES MICROVILLI DNA
The centrosome is a specialized area of Microvilli are specialized extensions of the DNA contains the information that directs
cytoplasm close to the nucleus where cell membrane that are supported by protein synthesis; a process called gene
microtubule formation occurs. microfilaments. expression.

It contains two centrioles, which are normally They do not actively move as cilia and flagella A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides
oriented perpendicular to each other. do. joined together to form two nucleotide
strands.
Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle Microvilli are numerous on cells that have
composed of microtubules. them and they increase the surface area of The two strands are connected and resemble
those cells. a ladder that is twisted around its long axis.
The centriole is involved in the process of
mitosis. They are abundant on the surface of cells Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar,
that line the intestine, kidney, and other a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
areas in which absorption is an important
function. Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a
CILIA specific bonding pattern to another
Cilia project from the surface of certain cells. nucleotide on the opposite strand.

They are responsible for the movement of WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that
materials over the top of cells, such as A cell’s characteristics are determine by the provides a chemical set of instructions for
mucus. type of proteins produced. making a specific protein.

Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend The proteins produced are in turn
from the cell and are composed of determined by the genetic information in the
microtubules. nucleus. GENE EXPRESSION
Gene expression, which is protein synthesis,
Information in DNA provides the cell with a involves transcription and translation.
code for its cellular processes.
FLAGELLA TRANSCRIPTION involves copying DNA into
Flagella have a structure similar to that of messenger RNA.
cilia but are much longer, and they usually
occur only one per cell. TRANSLATION involves messenger RNA being
used to produce a protein.
Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which
propels the sperm cell.
 TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION other, and each strand serves as a template
Transcription takes place in the nucleus of Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after for the production of a new strand of DNA.
the cell. mRNA has exited the nucleus through the
nuclear pores. Nucleotides in the DNA of each template
DNA determines the structure of mRNA strand pair with new nucleotides that are
through transcription. The mRNA attaches to a ribosome. subsequently joined by enzymes to form a
new strand of DNA.
During transcription, the double strands of a CODONS (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA
DNA segment separate, and DNA nucleotides are read by ANTICODON (3 nucleotide bases) The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA
of the gene pair with RNA nucleotides that on TRANSFER RNA (tRNA). template determines the sequence of
form the mRNA. nucleotides in the new strand of DNA.
Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids
DNA contains one of the following organic from the cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA Replication of DNA gives two identical
bases: thymine, adenine, cytosine, or complex and initiates formation of the chromatids joined at a centromere; both
guanine. polypeptide chain. form one chromosome.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil, The process continues until the entire
adenine, cytosine, or guanine. polypeptide is completely formed.
CELL GENETIC CONTENT
DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA Each human cell (except sperm and egg)
nucleotides. contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of
THE CELL CYCLE 46.
DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine. During growth and development, cell division
occurs to increase the number of cells or The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes
DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil. replace damaged or dying ones. total.

DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine This cell division involves a cell cycle. One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes, which consist of two X
DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine. The cell cycle includes two major phases: a chromosomes if the person is a female or an
non-dividing phase, called INTERPHASE, and X and Y chromosome if the person is a male.
a cell dividing phase, termed MITOSIS.

A cell spends most of its life cycle in

interphase performing its normal functions. MITOSIS
Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells
During interphase, the DNA (located in from a single parent cell.
chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is
replicated. Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
The two strands of DNA separate from each PROPHASE
During prophase the chromatin condenses to During telophase, the chromosomes in each
form visible chromosomes. of the daughter cells become organized to In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates
form two separate nuclei, one in each newly excess cells to maintain a constant number of
Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to formed daughter cell. cells within the tissue.
assist in breaking the centromere between
the chromatids and move the chromosomes The chromosomes begin to unravel and
to opposite sides of the cell. resemble the genetic material during
interphase. CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING
The nuclear membrane dissolves. There are various causes for cellular aging.
Following telophase, cytoplasm division is
completed, and two separate daughter cells • Existence of a cellular clock
are produced. • Presence of death genes
METAPHASE • DNA damage
During metaphase, the chromosomes align • Formation of free radicals
near the center of the cell. • Mitochondrial damage
DIFFERENTIATION
The movement of the chromosomes is A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a
regulated by the attached spindle fibers. single cell, then a great number of mitotic
divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of TUMORS
the body. Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.

ANAPHASE The process by which cells develop with They are due to problems occurring in the
At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids specialized structures and functions is called cell cycle.
separate and each chromatid is called a differentiation.
chromosome. Some tumors are benign and some are
During differentiation of a cell, some malignant (cancer).
Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is portions of DNA are active, but others are
moved by the spindle fibers toward the inactive. Malignant tumors can spread by a process,
centriole at one of the poles of the cell. termed metastasis.

At the end of anaphase, each set of

chromosomes has reached an opposite pole APOPTOSIS
of the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is
divide. a normal process by which cell numbers
within various tissues are adjusted and
controlled.

In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes

extra tissue, such as cells between the
TELOPHASE developing fingers and toes.