Groups within society can be broadly categorized into primary and secondary groups, each serving distinct

roles in social life and having different characteristics:

1. Primary Groups

 Definition: Primary groups are small, intimate, and long-lasting groups where members interact closely
and personally. They are often the first groups we become part of in life and play a crucial role in
socialization.
 Characteristics:
o Intimate Relationships: Members have close, personal relationships and care deeply for each
other.
o Emotional Support: Primary groups provide emotional support, guidance, and a sense of
belonging.
o Small Size: These groups are typically small, allowing for face-to-face interactions.
o Long-lasting Bonds: Relationships in primary groups are often stable and endure over time.
 Examples: Family, close friends, and small, tightly-knit communities.

2. Secondary Groups

 Definition: Secondary groups are larger, more impersonal, and goal-oriented. Members come together
for specific purposes or to accomplish tasks, and relationships are often formal and less personal.
 Characteristics:
o Formal and Structured: Relationships are often based on roles, duties, or functions rather than
personal connections.
o Goal-Oriented: The focus is on achieving specific goals or tasks rather than emotional
connection.
o Larger in Size: Secondary groups can include many people, often leading to indirect or limited
interaction.
o Temporary or Short-Term: Membership may last only as long as the goal or activity requires.
 Examples: Workplace teams, school classes, political organizations, religious institutions, and clubs or
associations focused on a common interest.

In essence, primary groups provide emotional support and a strong sense of belonging, forming the foundation
of our social identity, while secondary groups allow individuals to achieve objectives, develop skills, and
contribute to society in structured and formal settings.

In-groups and out-groups are terms used in sociology to describe how people categorize and relate to others
within society. These groups influence identity, loyalty, and how people view and interact with others.

1. In-Groups

 Definition: In-groups are social groups to which a person feels they belong. Members of an in-group
share a sense of identity, loyalty, and commitment.
 Characteristics:
o Sense of Belonging: Members feel accepted and emotionally attached to the group.
o Shared Identity and Values: In-groups often have shared values, norms, and customs that
members identify with.
o Loyalty and Cohesion: Members are loyal to one another and often prioritize the group’s
interests.
o Distinction from Others: People in in-groups may see themselves as different from those in out-
groups, which can foster a sense of unity.
 Examples: Family, close friends, ethnic or cultural groups, sports teams, and social or religious
organizations where members feel a strong connection.

2. Out-Groups

 Definition: Out-groups are social groups with which a person does not identify and may even feel a
sense of competition, opposition, or detachment from.
 Characteristics:
o Lack of Affiliation: Individuals in out-groups are seen as different or "other," which can
sometimes lead to feelings of disinterest or disapproval.
 o Perceived Differences: Members of out-groups may have different values, beliefs, or behaviors
from those in the in-group, often leading to distinctions.
o Potential for Bias or Stereotyping: People may make assumptions or stereotypes about out-
group members, reinforcing the social divide.
o Limited Emotional Connection: There is typically less emotional attachment or loyalty felt
toward out-groups.
 Examples: People who support a rival sports team, different social or political groups, or others with
distinct cultural, religious, or lifestyle differences.

Influence on Social Dynamics

The concepts of in-groups and out-groups help explain group dynamics, prejudice, stereotyping, and social
cohesion. People may feel a strong sense of loyalty to in-groups, sometimes leading to favoritism. At the same
time, the division between in-groups and out-groups can lead to social conflict or discrimination, as individuals
may view out-groups as competitors or as "less like us."

A reference group is a social group that individuals use as a standard or benchmark to evaluate themselves,
their behaviors, and their decisions. Reference groups influence personal attitudes, aspirations, and social
behaviors, often shaping people’s perceptions of what is "normal" or desirable.

Key Features of Reference Groups

1. Standard of Comparison: Reference groups provide a point of comparison for individuals when
assessing their own qualities, achievements, and lifestyles.
2. Influence on Identity and Choices: Individuals may adopt the norms, values, and behaviors of a
reference group, even if they are not actual members, as they look to it for cues on how to act or think.
3. Types of Influence:
o Normative Influence: People may conform to the behaviors or expectations of a reference group
to fit in or be accepted.
o Comparative Influence: People evaluate themselves in comparison to reference groups, which
can affect their self-esteem, goals, and aspirations.
4. Aspirational and Associative: A reference group can be one that a person belongs to (like a group of
friends) or one they aspire to join (such as a professional organization or a celebrity culture).

Examples of Reference Groups

 Peer Groups: Friends and social circles often serve as reference groups, especially during adolescence
when individuals may look to their peers to shape their own identity.
 Professional Groups: People may model their behaviors or dress according to standards set by
professional reference groups like colleagues or industry leaders.
 Celebrities or Public Figures: Many people look to celebrities or public figures as reference groups,
emulating their styles, opinions, or lifestyles.
 Social Classes: People may adopt the values or lifestyles of a particular social class they aspire to or
identify with.

Importance of Reference Groups

Reference groups help individuals make decisions about everything from fashion to career goals, even political
or lifestyle choices. By looking to others they admire or respect, people develop a clearer sense of self and are
often motivated to make choices that align with their desired identity or societal role.

Networks are interconnected systems of individuals, groups, or organizations that share relationships,
interactions, and exchanges. In sociology, networks are essential for understanding how people connect,
communicate, and influence one another across various social contexts. They play a significant role in the
distribution of information, resources, and social support.

Key Characteristics of Networks

1. Structure of Connections: Networks are made up of "nodes" (individuals or groups) and "ties"
(relationships between them), creating a web-like structure of connections.
 2. Strength of Ties: Relationships within networks can vary in closeness and frequency. Strong ties (e.g.,
close friends, family) offer trust and emotional support, while weak ties (e.g., acquaintances, colleagues)
provide access to new information and broader social resources.
3. Types of Networks:
o Personal/Social Networks: Composed of personal relationships like family, friends, and
acquaintances, providing emotional support and companionship.
o Professional Networks: Focused on career and industry connections, helping individuals gain
insights, advice, and job opportunities.
o Community Networks: These include neighborhood or community organizations that foster
local support, trust, and shared activities.
o Online Networks: Social media platforms and online communities that allow people to interact
and share ideas or information regardless of geographic boundaries.

Importance of Networks

 Resource Access: Networks provide access to information, advice, job leads, or other resources that can
benefit individuals or groups.
 Social Influence: People are often influenced by their networks, adopting values, behaviors, or even
trends that are popular within their circles.
 Support Systems: Networks offer emotional and practical support during challenging times, enhancing
well-being and resilience.
 Social Capital: Strong networks contribute to "social capital," the value derived from social
connections, which can improve personal or community outcomes, like health, trust, and economic
opportunities.

Examples of Network Functions

 Job Hunting: Many job opportunities are found through personal networks, as people share job
openings or recommend acquaintances for positions.
 Community Building: Neighborhood associations or local clubs foster social ties, safety, and a sense of
belonging within communities.
 Advocacy and Social Movements: Networks enable people to organize and mobilize around causes, as
seen in grassroots movements or online campaigns.

In short, networks are vital for fostering connection, opportunity, and mutual support across all areas of social
life. They help people access resources, feel supported, and navigate complex social environments, and they
contribute significantly to both individual success and collective well-being.

CULTURAL, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

Topic: Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

Content: Kinship, Marriage, and the Household

Learning Objectives

1. Understand the concept of kinship and how it shapes relationships in societies.

2. Explore the various types of kinship by blood, marriage, and ritual.
3. Differentiate between family structures and understand the influence of kinship on social and political
structures.

1. Kinship: An Overview

 Kinship: Kinship is the network of social relationships that connect people within a society. It is formed
by blood, marriage, or rituals. Kinship defines roles, responsibilities, and bonds between people.

2. Types of Kinship
A. Kinship by Blood

Kinship by blood connects individuals through birth and family lineage. Key concepts include:

 Descent: The tracing of family lines to determine who is related to whom.

 Types of Descent:
o Unilineal: Descent is traced through one parent only, either the mother or the father.
 Matrilineal: Descent traced through the mother’s line.
 Patrilineal: Descent traced through the father’s line.
o Bilateral: Descent is traced equally through both parents, recognizing both sides of the family.

B. Kinship by Marriage

Kinship by marriage connects people through the bonds formed by marriage. Different societies have distinct
marriage customs.

 Marriage Rules Cross-Culturally:

o Monogamy: Marriage between two people.
o Polygamy: One person has multiple spouses. Types include:
 Polygyny: One man with multiple wives.
 Polyandry: One woman with multiple husbands.
 Post-Marital Residency Rule: Determines where a couple lives after marriage:
o Patrilocal: Couple lives with or near the husband’s family.
o Matrilocal: Couple lives with or near the wife’s family.
o Neolocal: Couple establishes a new home independently.
 Preferred Marriage Partner: Some cultures have rules about who an ideal marriage partner should be,
sometimes within extended family or social groups.

C. Kinship by Ritual (Compadrazgo)

 Compadrazgo: This is a system of kinship by ritual, often found in Hispanic cultures. It involves
relationships established through baptism or confirmation, where godparents (compadres) take on a
supportive role for the child and their family, creating a kinship bond by ritual.

3. Family and Household Structures

Families and households come in various forms, and each plays a role in social organization.

 Nuclear Family: A small family unit with parents and their children.
 Extended Family: A larger family group that includes relatives beyond the immediate family, like
grandparents, aunts, and uncles, often living together or nearby.
 Reconstituted Families: Families formed through remarriage, where step-parents and step-siblings may
be part of the household.
 Transnational Families: Families with members living in different countries, often due to work or
migration, maintaining family bonds across borders.

4. Politics of Kinship

Kinship can play a significant role in political power and alliances within a society.

 Political Dynasty: When political power is passed down within a family, often creating a legacy of
leadership (e.g., a family that holds political positions across generations).
 Alliances: Family ties are used to create alliances between families or groups. This could mean marriage
between families to strengthen power or support, especially in traditional societies or political settings.

POLITICAL AND LEADERSHIP STRUCTURES

. Political Organization
Political Organization is the system by which a society structures its leadership and decision-making
processes. Political structures help maintain social order, resolve conflicts, and organize resources. Here’s a
closer look at each type:

A. Types of Political Organization

 Bands
o Description: Bands are the simplest form of political organization. They consist of small, often
kin-based groups, typically with fewer than 100 people. Because everyone knows each other,
formal rules and laws are unnecessary; instead, people follow social norms and agreements.
Leadership is informal, and decisions are made through consensus—everyone has a voice, and
disputes are often resolved by discussion and compromise.
o Example: Many traditional hunter-gatherer societies, like the San people of Southern Africa or
Indigenous groups in the Amazon, operate as bands. These groups prioritize cooperation and
shared decision-making, often relying on the wisdom of elders or the skills of individuals to
guide them.
 Tribes
o Description: Tribes are larger than bands and may consist of several extended families or clans.
They are often settled, engaging in activities like agriculture or animal husbandry, which require
more coordination and cooperation. While tribes may have leaders, often called "headmen" or
"elders," these leaders earn respect and influence through experience or skills rather than holding
absolute authority.
o Example: Native American tribes, such as the Navajo or Cherokee, have tribal councils made up
of respected leaders. In many African and Oceanic societies, tribal leaders are chosen for their
wisdom and service to the community.
 Chiefdoms
o Description: Chiefdoms represent a more complex social structure, with centralized leadership
typically in the form of a chief. Chiefs often inherit their position within the family, creating a
hierarchical structure where the chief holds more authority. Chiefdoms are usually more
organized than tribes, with established rules and a system for resolving disputes.
o Example: The Polynesian societies of Hawaii were traditionally organized as chiefdoms. Chiefs
held significant authority, managed resources, and were respected for both their lineage and
abilities. Another example is the Ashanti chiefdom in Ghana, which has a long-standing structure
where chiefs play both political and cultural roles.
 States and Nations
o Description: The state is the most complex political structure, characterized by a formal
government, laws, and administrative systems. Unlike bands or tribes, states are highly
centralized, with leaders elected or appointed through formal processes. States have defined
territories, enforce laws, collect taxes, and often maintain a military or police force.
o Example: Modern nations like the United States, Japan, and France are examples of states. They
have structured governments with elected officials, defined laws, and systems to enforce those
laws.

2. Authority and Legitimacy

Authority and legitimacy explain why people accept some leaders and obey rules or laws. Sociologist Max
Weber identified three types of authority:

A. Types of Authority

 Traditional Authority
o Description: Traditional authority is rooted in long-standing customs, practices, or beliefs.
Leaders inherit power through family or tradition, making their authority widely accepted
without questioning.
o Example: Monarchies, such as the British royal family, are based on traditional authority. People
respect the position of the king or queen due to the long-standing history of monarchy in their
culture. In tribal societies, chiefs often gain authority through family lineage, upheld by cultural
beliefs.
 Charismatic Authority
o Description: Charismatic authority is based on a leader’s personal qualities, inspiration, or
vision. Charismatic leaders inspire followers with their personalities, often emerging in times of
change or crisis.
 o Example: Leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Nelson Mandela held charismatic authority.
Their personal commitment to justice and equality inspired people to follow and support their
movements, even without formal power.
 Rational-Legal Authority
o Description: Rational-legal authority is based on laws, rules, and formal structures. Leaders are
chosen based on set procedures, like elections, and their authority comes from the legal system
rather than personal qualities or tradition.
o Example: Presidents, judges, and elected officials hold rational-legal authority. They are
respected because they were chosen through an established system of rules and laws, as seen in
democracies worldwide.

ECONOMICS INSTITUTIONS

1. Introduction to Economic Institutions

Economic Institutions are structures and mechanisms in society that help organize the production, distribution,
and consumption of goods and services. Different cultures and societies have unique ways of managing
economic relationships and resources based on their needs, values, and level of development.

2. Types of Economic Transactions

Economic transactions help societies distribute resources and services. Here are four major types of
transactions:

A. Reciprocity

 Description: Reciprocity involves the exchange of goods or services without expecting immediate
payment or an exact value in return. It’s based on social relationships and is often found in close-knit
communities where people help each other to strengthen bonds.
 Types of Reciprocity:
o Generalized Reciprocity: Giving without expecting anything specific in return, often seen in
family or close relationships. For example, parents providing for children.
o Balanced Reciprocity: A fair and balanced exchange where something of equal value is
expected back eventually, such as when friends exchange birthday gifts.
o Negative Reciprocity: Trying to get something for as little as possible, often seen in bargaining
or trading between strangers.
 Example: In Indigenous communities, reciprocity is a cultural practice. For example, the Kula ring in
the Trobriand Islands is a system where community members trade goods to build alliances and
maintain social bonds.

B. Transfer

 Description: Transfer involves the giving of resources or wealth without expecting any return. Transfers
are typically one-sided and can include things like donations, grants, or social welfare benefits.
 Example: Governments often provide transfers through welfare programs, like unemployment benefits
or food assistance, to support people in need. Charitable donations are another form of transfer where
people give without expecting anything back.

C. Redistribution

 Description: Redistribution involves collecting resources from a group and redistributing them to ensure
a balanced distribution across society. Often, governments or leaders collect taxes or tributes and use
them to fund public services.
 Example: Modern tax systems are a form of redistribution. Governments collect taxes and use the
revenue for public services like education, healthcare, and infrastructure. In traditional societies, chiefs
or leaders might collect resources and redistribute them to maintain social order.

D. Market Transactions
  Description: Market transactions are exchanges of goods and services that occur in a marketplace where
buyers and sellers negotiate prices. These transactions are based on supply and demand and typically
involve money.
 Example: Shopping at a store or online platform like Amazon, where people buy goods or services
using money. The price is determined by what people are willing to pay, which can vary based on
factors like quality and demand.
 .

3. Markets and the State

Markets and the State play different roles in managing and regulating economic activities within a society.

A. Markets

 Description: Markets are systems where goods and services are bought and sold. In a free-market
economy, prices are determined by competition, supply, and demand. Markets allow people to trade,
specialize, and build wealth.
 Example: Stock markets are places where shares of companies are bought and sold. Farmers' markets
are local spaces where people buy fresh produce directly from farmers. Online marketplaces like eBay
and Etsy connect buyers and sellers globally.

B. The State

 Description: The state plays a regulatory role in the economy by setting laws and policies that impact
trade, business, and resource distribution. The state can intervene to correct market failures, protect
consumers, and provide public goods and services.
 Example: Governments regulate markets to prevent monopolies (companies that dominate a market) or
to ensure safety standards, such as with food and drug administration. They also provide public goods,
like parks and highways, that the market alone might not support.

NONSTATE INSTITUTIONS

Nonstate Institutions

Topic: Nonstate Institutions

Content: Banks and Corporations, Cooperatives and Trade Unions, Transnational Advocacy Groups,
Development Agencies, and International Organizations

1. Introduction to Nonstate Institutions

Nonstate Institutions are organizations that operate independently of the government. These institutions
contribute to social and economic stability, provide goods and services, advocate for rights, and connect
communities across borders. They range from financial institutions like banks to advocacy groups and
international development agencies.

2. Types of Nonstate Institutions

Each type of nonstate institution serves a specific purpose and contributes to society in different ways.

A. Banks and Corporations

 Banks
o Description: Banks are financial institutions that provide services such as savings accounts,
loans, and investments. They help individuals save money, provide credit to businesses, and
support economic growth by financing projects.
 o Example: Global banks like JPMorgan Chase and local banks like the Bank of the Philippine
Islands (BPI) offer loans for education, housing, and small businesses, which help people and
companies grow financially.
 Corporations
o Description: Corporations are large businesses owned by shareholders that operate to make a
profit. They contribute to the economy by providing jobs, producing goods and services, and
investing in new technologies.
o Example: Companies like Apple, Samsung, and Toyota are corporations that create jobs, drive
innovation, and impact markets globally. They are often major players in the economy and
influence both local and global markets.

B. Cooperatives and Trade Unions

 Cooperatives
o Description: Cooperatives are organizations owned and operated by members who share the
benefits. They operate based on shared interests and provide services such as buying goods at
lower prices or pooling resources for production.
o Example: Agricultural cooperatives, like Ocean Spray in the U.S., are owned by farmers who
pool resources to market and distribute products. Credit unions are financial cooperatives owned
by their members and often offer lower interest rates on loans.
 Trade Unions
o Description: Trade unions are organizations that represent workers in specific industries. They
negotiate with employers for better wages, working conditions, and benefits, protecting workers’
rights and interests.
o Example: The International Brotherhood of Teamsters represents drivers, warehouse workers,
and other laborers. Trade unions often negotiate contracts, ensure safe working conditions, and
provide legal assistance to their members.

C. Transnational Advocacy Groups

 Description: Transnational advocacy groups are organizations that operate across borders to promote
social, political, or environmental causes. They often advocate for human rights, environmental
protection, and social justice.
 Example: Greenpeace is an international organization that advocates for environmental protection.
Amnesty International works globally to protect human rights and campaign against injustices like
wrongful imprisonment or torture..

1. Introduction to Education and its Functions in Society

Education is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes that prepare individuals for life.
In every society, education is essential for both personal growth and societal development. Education is often
divided into:

 Formal Education: Structured education in schools, colleges, and universities, following a curriculum.
 Nonformal Education: Learning outside of traditional classrooms, including community workshops,
vocational training, and online courses.

2. Functions of Education in Society

Education serves multiple roles beyond academic achievement. Here are three key functions:

 Description: Education equips individuals with skills and knowledge to become productive members of
society. By developing literacy, numeracy, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills, education helps
people contribute to the workforce and the economy.
 Formal Education Example: Schools and universities provide specific training for professions such as
doctors, engineers, teachers, and skilled laborers. Through structured curriculums, students learn
technical skills and specialized knowledge required for various careers.
 Nonformal Education Example: Community workshops or vocational training teach practical skills
like carpentry, entrepreneurship, and computer literacy, allowing people to find employment or start
businesses..
Global Perspective: Organizations like UNESCO and UNICEF work to provide access to primary education
worldwide, as education is essential for combating poverty and enabling social mobility. The United Nations
Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the right to education.

Importance of Education in Personal and Social Development:

 Productive citizens contribute to the workforce and community well-being.

 Self-actualization promotes individual fulfillment and social harmony.
 Universal access to primary education is vital for social equity and empowerment.

Religion and Belief Systems.

1. Introduction to Religion and Belief Systems

Religion and belief systems have shaped cultures, values, and governance across history. They provide
frameworks for understanding life, nature, morality, and the universe. These belief systems can vary widely but
share a common role in guiding individual behavior and community practices.

2. Types of Belief Systems

Here are some major categories of belief systems:

A. Animism

 Description: Animism is the belief that natural objects, animals, and even places possess a spiritual
essence or soul. This is often seen in indigenous cultures and is one of the oldest forms of belief.
 Example: In many Native American traditions, animals like the eagle or the wolf are believed to have
spiritual powers and are respected as beings with their own wisdom. Shintoism in Japan is another
example, where kami (spirits) inhabit natural elements like rivers, mountains, and trees.

B. Polytheism

 Description: Polytheism is the belief in multiple gods or deities, each often having specific powers or
areas of influence. Polytheistic societies may have gods for different aspects of life, like war, love, the
harvest, and the seas.
 Example: Ancient Greek mythology is a well-known example, with gods like Zeus, Athena, and
Poseidon governing various domains. Hinduism is also largely polytheistic, with a vast array of deities
such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Lakshmi representing different powers and values.

C. Monotheism

 Description: Monotheism is the belief in a single, all-powerful god who is responsible for creation,
morality, and the afterlife. Monotheistic religions typically emphasize a moral code and the relationship
between humanity and this one god.
 Example: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are the three major monotheistic religions, with each
centering on one God. Christianity believes in God as represented in the Holy Trinity, Islam emphasizes
Allah as the sole creator, and Judaism venerates Yahweh.