Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

Photosynthesis in Higher Plants (Part-I)

• Higher plants – Gymnosperms, Angiosperm.

Synthesise food
• Green plants   Animals
(Autotrophs) (Hetrotrophs)

• Synthesis
Inorganic substance Organic food.

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
• Oxidation Reduction (Redox) Process.
• Endothermic Process (Energy requiring reaction) - Reduction
• Anabolic Process
• Physico-chemical process
• Light energy into chemical energy
Photosynthesis
• Sun light is basis of life on earth.
• Photosynthesis important due to two reasons.
(i) Primary source of food on earth
(ii) Release of oxygen into atmosphere.
What Do we Know ?
• Requirement for photosynthesis to occur.
(i) Chlorophyll (Green pigment of the leaf)
(ii) Sun light
(iii) CO2 (ATM)
(iv) Water (Soil – Root)
Proof of the Photosynthesis
(i) Starch formation – Tested by Iodine (I2)
(ii) Oxygen formation.

New Light Institute [2]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
Experiments
(i) Variegated leaf experiment –
• Chlorophyll essential for photosynthesis

Leaf Partially covered with Black Paper

• Sunlight is essential for photosynthesis.

Moll’s Half Leaf Experiment :

• CO2 is essential for Photosynthesis

New Light Institute [3]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
Early Experiments
(1) Joseph Priestley
(i) In 1770 – Green Plants – growth – Air essential.
(ii) In 1774 – Discovered oxygen.
(iii) Plant Purify the air.

Conclusion :
• Burning candle & animal (breathe) – Damage the air .
• Bell Jar – Mint plant - (i) Mouse – Alive,
(ii) Candle – Continued to burn.
• Priestley hypothesised as follows: Plants restore to the air whatever breathing animals
and burning candles remove.

Q. How many different ways can you think of to light the candle without disturbing the set-up?
Ans. (1) By focusing a light through conversion lens.
(2) By an electrical spark.
• (2) Jan Ingenhousz

• Repeat Priestley experiments (i) Sunlight

(ii) Dark - Even in presence of mint plant Mice killed.
• Plant Purify air but in Presence of sunlight.

New Light Institute [4]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

• (3) Julius Von Sachs (1854)

• (4) T. W. Engelmann

New Light Institute [5]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

(Aerobic Bacteria)

(Chladophora)

• In Blue & Red region more O2 produce.

• Detected by - Aerobic bacteria & accumulated mainly in the region of blue and red light
of the split spectrum.
• Middle of Ninetee nth centruy -

• (5) Carnelius Von Niel

• Microbiologist.
• A milestone contribution to understanding of photosynthesis.
• Bacterial photosynthesis (Anoxygenic Photosynthetsis)
• Studies on purple and green sulphur bacteria.

New Light Institute [6]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
• 6CO2 + 6H2S C6H12O6 + S 
• Photosynthesis – Redox reaction.
Re duction
CO2   C6 H12O 6 Glucose

Oxidation
HA 2   O 2 / Sulphur / Sulphate
 Oxidisable compound 
 or 
 Re ducing agent 
 

Light
2H2 A  CO 2   2A  CH2O  H2 O

Green Plant Photosynthesis

Light
2H2 O  CO2   2O 2  CH2O  H2 O

Puple and Green bacteria photosynthesis

Light
2H2 S  CO 2   2S  CH2 O  H2O

(6) Ruben & Kamen - Radio isotopic techniques

• Also explain that O2 release from the water.

C O R2  H 2 O   S u n li g h t
 
C h l o r o p h y ll
 C 6H 12 O 6  O 2 
( N o rm a l O x y g e n )

CO 2  H 2O R   S u n lig h t
 
C h lo ro p h y ll
 C 6H 12 O 6  O R
2 
( R a d io a c t iv e O x y g e n )

Correct Equation of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis – Multi - step reaction

• Where does photosynthesis take place ?

• Green part of plant - Green leaf (Main site for photosynthesis) – Mesophyll – Chloroplast.

New Light Institute [7]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
Q. Can you name some other parts where you think photosynthesis may occur?
Ans. (1) Photosynthetic root (or) assimilatory root – Trapa, Tinospora.
(2) Phylloclade – Stem – Opuntia.
(3) Phyllode – Petiole – Australian Acasia.
• Usually the chloroplasts align themselves along the walls of the mesophyll cells, such that
they get the optimum quantity of the incident light.

Q. When do you think the chloroplasts will be aligned with their flat
surfaces parallel to the walls? When would they be perpendicular to
the incident light?

Electron micrograph of a section of chloroplast.

New Light Institute [8]
Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

How many types of pigments are involved in Photosynthesis ?

New Light Institute [9]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

• Colour of leaf due to four pigments.

(1) Chlorophyll a – Bright or blue green.
(2) Chlorophyll b - Yellow green.
(3) Xanthophylls – Yellow
(4) Carotenoids – Yellow to yellow – organge.
• Most abundant plant pigment in the world – Chlorophyll a.
• Light quality – Which wave length (colour of light) is essential for photosynthesis.
• So to under stand which pigment absorb which perticular wave length – Absorption
spectrum.
• By using spectrophotometer.
• Vissible spectrum of light - VIBGYOR

New Light Institute [10]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
Q. From Figure 13.3a can you determine the wavelength (colour of light) at which chlorophyll a
shows the maximum absorption?
Ans. Blue
Q. Does it show another absorption peak at any other wavelengths too? If yes, which one?
Ans. Red
 Chl-a absorb max. at – Blue & Red Region.
 Absorb – 400 – 450 nm
 Absorb – 650 – 700 nm
 Chl-b – absorb – Closer to blue green region and near the red region.
 450-500 nm , 590 – 650 nm
 Carotenoid – Absorption at 400 to 500 nm i.e. blue & green region.

Graph showing action spectrum of photosynthesis

 Now look at Figure 13.3b showing the wavelengths at which maximum photosynthesis
occurs in a plant. Can you see that the wavelengths at which there is maximum
absorption by chlorophyll a, i.e., in the blue and the red regions, also shows higher
rate of photosynthesis.
 Chlorophyll – a chief pigment.

Let us see how pigments functions

New Light Institute [11]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
 tc dksbZ Pigment fdlh nwljs Pigment viuh wave length nsrk gSA rks ;s pigment viuh wave
length ges”kk higher wave length okys pigment dks nsrk gSA

 Function of Accessory pigments.

(1) Enable a wider range of wave length of incoming light to be utilised for photosynthesis.
(2) Protect chlorophyll a from photooxidation.

New Light Institute [12]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
What is light Reaction.
 Light Reactions / Photochemical Reaction / (Hill Reaction)
 Grana Or thalakoids of chloroplast.
 Trapping light energy
 Synthesis of ATP & NADPH

Light Reaction Include :

 Light Absorption
 Water Splitting
 Oxygen Release
 Formation of ATP & NADPH

New Light Institute [13]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
 Name in sequence of their discovery.
 Not in the in the sequence of their function.

Photochemicals

Photosystem-I Photosystem-II

Reaction - Chl-a Reaction - Chl-a

Absorption Peak - at 700 nm Absorption Peak - at 680 nm

PSI/P 700 PSI/P 680

 PS-I/P700
 Location – Inner side of thalakoid membrane.
 PS-II/P680
New Light Institute [14]
Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
 Located on – Outer side of thalakoid membrane.
 Associated with – Water spitting complex.
The Electron Transport

 Low energy level – High energy level – Uphill.

 High energy level – Low energy level – Down hill
(When e ‘s moves in ETS, e will loose loose energy – e
movement – Down hill)
 ETS consisting of Cytochromes.
 All are e carrier..
PS II  e Acceptor  ETS  PSI  e Acceptor  NADP  NADPH

 Sequence of carrier on the basis of their reducing potential is called Z – Scheme.

Splitting of Water :
Mn2 / Cl / HCO3
 4H  O2  4e
2H2O 
New Light Institute [15]
Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
 PS II inner side of the membrane of the thylakoid.
 The splitting of water is associated with the PS II.
 This creates oxygen, one of the net products of photosynthesis.
 Oxygen formed likely to release in thylakoid lumen.

Cyclic and Non-cyclic Photo-Phosphorylation.

 Living organisms have the capability of extracting energy from oxidisable substances and
store this in the form of bond energy. Special substances like ATP, carry this energy in
their chemical bonds.
 ATP is synthesised by cells (in mitochondria and chloroplasts) is named phosphorylation.
 Photophosphorylation is the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate in the
presence of light.

Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation
 When the two photosystems work in a series, first PS II and then the PS I, a process
called non-cyclic photo-phosphorylation occurs.
 The two photosystems are connected through an electron transport chain, as seen earlier
– in the Z scheme
 Both ATP and NADPH + H+ are synthesised by this kind of electron flow
 Membrane or the lamellae of the grana have both PS I and PS II.
 So, non-cyclic photophosphorylation occur in grana lamellae.

New Light Institute [16]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
Cyclic Photophosphorylation

 A possible location where this could be happening is in the stroma lamellae.

 the stroma lamellae membranes lack PS II as well as NADP reductase enzyme.

Cyclic Photophosphorylation

Chemiosmotic Hypothesis

New Light Institute [17]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
WHERE ARE THE ATP AND NADPH USED?

WHERE ARE THE ATP AND NADPH USED?

Biosynthetic Phase (or Dark Reaction)

 Does not directly depend on light.

 But is dependent on the products of the light reactions i.e., ATP and NADPH.
ATP /NADPH
 CO2  H2O   Sugar
 You may wonder how this could be verified; it is simple: immediately after light becomes
unavailable, the biosynthetic process continues for some time, and then stops. If
then, light is made available, the synthesis starts again
Q. Can we, hence, say that calling the biosynthetic phase as the dark reaction is a
misnomer?
 Let us now see how the ATP and NADPH are used in the biosynthetic phase.

CO 2  H2 O  CH 2 O n
or sugars

New Light Institute [18]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
 Just after world War II
 Melvin Calvin.
 Radio isotopes – beneficial use.
 Radioactive 14C – use
 Algal photosynthesis (Unicellular Green Algal – Chlorella)
 Discovery - Ist CO2 fixation product.
 3 carbon organic acid – 3 – Phosphoglyceric acid (PGA)
 Complete Biosynthetic Pathway.
 Calvin cycle

The Primary Acceptor of CO2

 The studies very unexpectedly showed that the acceptor molecule was a 5-carbon
ketose sugar – ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP).

The Calvin Cycle

 Melvin Calvin
 Cyclic manner
 RuBP was regenerated
 sugar is synthesised
 Calvin pathway occurs in all photosynthetic plants
(it does not matter whether they have C3 or C4 (or any other) pathways)

New Light Institute [19]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
The Calvin Cycle
 Calvin cycle can be described under three stages:
(i) Carboxylation
(ii) Reduction
(iii) Regeneration.

New Light Institute [20]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

New Light Institute [21]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

The C4 pathway/Hatch and Slack pathway

 Cyclic Process.
 Dry tropical regions
 First CO2 fixation product : C4 oxaloacetic acid
 They use the C3 pathway or the Calvin cycle as the main biosynthetic pathway.

The C4 pathway

 C4 plants are special:

(i) special type of leaf anatomy
(ii) tolerate higher temperatures
(iii) response to high light intensities
(iv) lack a process called photorespiration
(v) greater productivity of biomass.

‘Kranz’ anatomy

 ‘Kranz’ means ‘wreath’ and is a reflection of the arrangement of cells

 The particularly large cells around the vascular bundles of the C4 plants are called
bundle sheath cells, and the leaves which have such anatomy are said to have ‘Kranz’
anatomy.

New Light Institute [22]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
Kranz Anatomy

Kranz Anatomy

Kranz Anatomy

 The presence of the bundle sheath would help you identify the C4 plants.
 C4 plant – Bundle sheath cells – Photosynthetic
 C3 plant - Bundle sheath cells – Non-Photosynthetic

New Light Institute [23]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

Hatch – Slack Pathway (Cycle)

New Light Institute [24]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
In Mesophyll
 The primary CO2 acceptor is a 3-carbon molecule phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP).
 Enzyme responsible for this fixation is PEP carboxylase or PEPcase
 Mesophyll cells lack RuBisCO enzyme
 OAA is formed in the mesophyll cells.
 It then forms other 4-carbon compounds like malic acid or aspartic acid in the
mesophyll cells.

Bundle Sheath Cells

 Bundle sheath cells C3 or the Calvin pathway
 The bundle sheath cells are rich in an enzyme Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase-
oxygenase (RuBisCO),
 Bundle sheath cells lack PEPcase.
 C3 plants - Calvin pathway - Mesophylls cells.
 C4 plants - Calvin pathway - bundle sheath cells.

PHOTORESPIRATION
 Occur in chloroplast peroxisome, mitochondria.
 Creates Important difference between C3 and C4 plants
 C3 Plant – Photorespiration Present .
 C4 Plants – Photorespiration Absent.
 Ist step of Calvin Cycle – Carboxylation step.

RuBisCO
 Most Abundant Protein in the world.
 Most Abundant Enzyme in the world.

New Light Institute [25]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

New Light Institute [26]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
In Photorespiration

 No sugar formation.
 No ATP form
 CO2 Release but by utilisation ATP
 Waste full Process
 C3 plants – present, C4 plants – Absent.

 C4 Plants – No photorespiration WHY ?

 C4 Plants – Mechanism

On enzymes site (where RuBisCO present i.e., in Bundle sheath cells)

Increase the concentration of CO2.

New Light Institute [27]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

C4 Plants
 Productivity and Yield better.
 These plants show toleratance to higher temperatures.

New Light Institute [28]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

 Rate of Photosynthesis  
D e te r m in e
   Yield of Plants (Crop Plants).

Note :
Plant or Internal Factors are depend on
1. Genetic Predisposition.
2. Growth on the Plant.

New Light Institute [29]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
Law of Limiting Factors.

 Black man’s (1905)

 Any [Bio] Chemical Process : Several Factor Affect.
“If a chemical Process affected by more than one factor then its rate will be Determined
by the factor which is nearest to its minimal value : it is the factor which directly
affects the process if the quantity is changed.

New Light Institute [30]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
Light
3 component
• Light quality (Wave length – Colour of light)
• Light Intesity .
• Duration of exposure to light (Photoperiodism).

 At low light intesnities

 [Rate of Photosynthesis Light Intensity]
 Linear relationship.
 In Graph – At point A & B – Light is Limiting Factor
 At Point C —————————— Light is not limiting factor.

(At high light intensity) (That is any other factor is limiting factor)
 Light is Rarely a limiting factor in nature.

New Light Institute [31]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
 Normally 10% of full sunlight is sufficient for plants)
 i.e. , In plant Light Saturation : 10% of full sunlight
 But in shade – light – limiting factor
e.g. Plant in shades / dense forest (sciophytes).
 Increase in Incident Light

Beyond a point (Saturation Point

Break down of Chlorophyll (Photooxidation)

Photosynthesis - Decrease

Carbon dioxide Concentration

 Major limiting factor for Photosynthesis.
 CO2 concentration in Atmosphere.
(Between 0.03 to 0.04 percent.)
 Increase CO2 cocentration upto 0.05%

Increase CO2 fixation rate.

Beyond (0.05%) this level – overlonger period can damaging the plant.

Carbon dioxide Concentration

 Any plant – Which require maximum CO2 – is called Saturation.
 C4 Plants show saturation at – About 360 lL-1
 C3 Plants show saturation at – Beyond 450 lL-1
 In environment CO2 concentration is - 380 lL-1
 At high light intensities, both C3 and C4 plants show increase in the rates of
photosynthesis.

New Light Institute [32]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
 For C4 plant – sufficient CO2 in environment.
 For C3 plant CO2 is limiting factor.
 At low light intensity both C3 and C4 plants. Both C3 and C4 plant not respond to
increased CO2 concentration. (Because light is limiting.)
 C3 plants – Respond to higher CO2 concentration (beyond 450 lL-1)
 Allowed to grow in CO2 enrich atmosphere.
 Higher yield / productivity.
 C3 plant used in green house crop e.g. tomatoes, bell pepper.

Temperature
 Dark reaction – Enzymatic – temperature controlled.
 Light reaction – Also temperature sensitive
– but affected by temperature much lesser extent.
 C3 plants : Much Lower temperature optimum. (20oC-25oC)
 C4 plants : higher temperature optimum. (30oC-40oC)
 Temperature optimum for photosynthesis of different plants depend on : habitat.
 Tropical plants – Higher temperature Optimum.
 Temperate Plants – Lower temperature optimum.
Water
 Water Is one of the reactions in Light reaction.
 Rate – Photolysis (Splitting) of Water.

Water indirect role

New Light Institute [33]

Topic – Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

New Light Institute [34]