COMMUNICATION

THEORY
Module 1
 DEFINITION OF
COMMUNICATION THEORY
It is a process which involves the transmission of information,
ideas, thoughts and feelings from one person to another.
 DEFINITION OF
COMMUNICATION THEORY

Lasswell defines communication as:

‘who says what to whom in what channel and with what

effect’(Daniels, Hunter, et al: 2014: 37)
 DEFINITION OF
COMMUNICATION THEORY
Barker and Gaut define communication as:

An interactive process involving two or more individuals who

make use of verbal and non-verbal language to convey meaning
that influences the behaviour of other individuals. This could
happen immediately or over a period of time (2002).
 DEFINITION OF
COMMUNICATION THEORY
According to Berko, Wolvin and Wolvin, communication is
defined as:

‘a process through which information is sent from a sender to a

receiver. The receiver then interprets the message (makes sense
of it). The purpose is to convey a meaningful message’ (2010).
BASIC MODEL

Receiver
 QUESTIONS
Determine whether each of the below statements is True or
False:

1. Humans are born with an innate capacity to be skilled

communicators.
2. Communication can be both verbal and non-verbal.
3. As the human brain has the capacity to remember and recall
information, spoken language provides a permanent record.

Refer to Chapter 1 in the prescribed textbook

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

 Sender/encoder  Sends or encodes message

to receiver.
 Can be verbal or non-
 Message
verbal or both.
 The medium through which
 Channel the sender sends the
message to the receiver.
 Decodes the message and
tries to make sense of it.
 Receiver/decoder
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

 Context/ setting  Affects/influences the

message sent i.e. business,
social, classroom setting.
 Response from the receiver
 Feedback/response
and indicates whether
he/she has understood the
message.
 Disruptions that take place
either internally or
 Noise
externally.
BASIC MODEL OF
COMMUNICATION
 LASSWELL’S MODEL OF
COMMUNICATION
WHO
SAYS WHAT CHANNEL
COMMUNICATO
MESSAGE MEDIUM
R

WITH WHAT
EFFECT TO WHOM

EFFECT RECEIVER
 LASWELL’S MODEL OF
COMMUNICATION
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

• Simple • Does not look at noise.

• Suitable for most types • Does not include feedback.
(contexts) of communication • Too linear (arranged in a
• Looks at effect straight line)
 THE LINEAR MODEL
Source of
Destination
information Transmitter Reception
decode Receiver
Sender Encoder channel
r

noise

Feedback
 LINEAR MODEL OF
COMMUNICATION
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

• Simple • Sender – plays most

• Suitable for electronic important role.
media because it’s one way. • Sender – has decision-
making power.
• Receiver – plays secondary
role.
• Receiver – very little
power.
LINEAR MODEL OF
COMMUNICATION
DISADVANTAGES
• Communication is one way.
• Model is not suitable for
other channels except
electronic media.
 BERLO’S SOURCE-MESSAGE-
CHANNEL- RECEIVER MODEL
Encodes Decodes
SOURCE MESSAGE CHANNEL RECEIVER

COMMUNICATION CONTENT HEARING COMMUNICATION

SKILLS SKILLS
ELEMENTS SEEING
ATTITUDES
ATTITUDES
KNOWLEDGE TREATMENT TOUCHING
KNOWLEDGE
SOCIAL
STRUCTURE SMELLING
SYSTEM SOCIAL
CODE TASTING SYSTEM
CULTURE
CULTURE
 BERLO’S SOURCE-MESSAGE-
CHANNEL- RECEIVER MODEL
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

• Looks at how certain factors • Linear model

affect the source, message, • Does not consider feedback,
channel and receiver. effect and barriers to
communication.
• Model used to design other
• Communicators need to have
models.
same skills, attitudes, knowledge,
culture and social systems.
• Does not consider thinking,
understanding and analysing.
 THE TRANSACTIONAL MODEL

• Understands that communication is two-way

• Communicators are in a simultaneous process (transaction).
 THE TRANSACTIONAL MODEL

NOISE
NOISE NOISE

Responds
Sends and FEEDBACK FEEDBACK Responds Sends and
receives
and MESSAGE and
decodes receives
decodes
CHANNELS CHANNELS

NOISE NOISE
NOISE
 THE TRANSACTIONAL MODEL
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

• Sender and receiver are • Sender and receiver

equal have difficulty
• Takes the environment communicating when
into account i.e. location, they have nothing in
cultural background, common.
personal experiences.
• Noise – both external
and internal factors.
• Internal noise –
physiological and
psychological
 THE INTERACTIVE MODEL

• Consists of two linear models which function together.

• Two way communication.
• Mostly used for interpersonal communication.
THE INTERACTIVE MODEL
 THE INTERACTIVE MODEL
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

• Sender sends message • Feedback is not

using a channel. simultaneous i.e. response
could be delayed.
• Receiver becomes
sender (roles are
reversed)
• Model considers factors
such as: frame of
reference (culture,
ethnicity, location, travel
experiences)
 OSGOOD AND SCHRAMM’S
CIRCULAR MODEL
• Emphasises that communication is circular in nature.
• Seen as an improvement from the linear models.
• Considers communication to be endless.
• Takes into account the effect of other factors i.e. cultural
differences, background, socio-economic factors, education
and other values.
THE CIRCULAR MODEL
 THE CIRCULAR MODEL
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

• Situations can change • Participants have to share

– not always the same. common rules and signs.
• Does not consider
• Both sender and communication with
receiver participate in oneself.
the process. Roles • Does not consider
change all the time. interpersonal
• Communication is communication.

circular.
• Feedback is important.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF
COMMUNICATION/
COMMUNICATION
CONTEXTS
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF
COMMUNICATION/COMMUNICATION
CONTEXTS
The various types of communication are:

• Extrapersonal communication
• Intrapersonal communication
• Interpersonal communication (two-person communication)
• Mass media communication
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF
COMMUNICATION

• Social media communication

• Small group communication
• Intercultural communication
• Public communication
• Organisational communication
 EXTRAPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION

• Communicating with an animal or an object.

• E.g. pets, talking to your car
 INTRAPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
• Communication that takes place with oneself.
• It takes place internally/ within.
• Self-talk.
• E.g. thinking, dreaming, worrying,
studying, planning
 INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION

• Communication takes place between individuals.

• There are few receivers involved.
• Feedback can take place immediately. It can be non-
verbal as well.
• Can be informal or formal.
E.g. intimate or personal relationships, business
situations
INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
 MASS MEDIA
COMMUNICATION
• The message is sent to a large group of individuals.
• Covers a large geographical area and therefore reaching many
receivers.
• Impersonal –receivers do not know one another.
• Makes use of a gatekeeper to send message.
 MASS MEDIA
COMMUNICATION PROCESS

GATEKEEPER
newspapers
n
magazines o
SENDER MESSAGE
i LARGE
radio AUDIENCE
s
television e
internet

INDIRECT SLOW FEEDBACK

 SOCIAL MEDIA
COMMUNICATION

• Can be used on a personal and workplace level.

• Includes internet forums, groups, blogs, social networks i.e.
Twitter, Facebook
 SMALL GROUP
COMMUNICATION

• According to C. Meyer small group communication is defined

as ‘…a collection of 4-12 individuals who are involved in face-
to-face interaction to achieve a common goal.’ (in Daniels,
Hunter, et al 2014: 73)
HOWEVER
 SMALL GROUP
COMMUNICATION

According to Zeuschner a small group is defined as ‘… a

collection of between 3-12 individuals who are involved in face-
to-face interaction to achieve a common goal.’ (in Cleary, 2003:
37)

E.g. preparing for a group presentation, planning committee

 INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION

• Refers to when individuals from different cultures interact.

• Barriers usually
occur.
• Important to find
a common
understanding.
 PUBLIC COMMUNICATION

• Public speeches
• E.g. public campaigns, elections, presenting to the community
• Messages are often used to inform, persuade and/or entertain.
• Sometimes the speaker wants to give information or other
times persuade the audience to change their attitude.
 ORGANISATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
• According to Fielding (1997) an organisation consists of
‘groups of people who work together to reach specific goals’
(in Cleary 2003: 10).

• In order to achieve these goals individuals have to

communicate with each other.
 ORGANISATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
• The direction the message travels between the sender and the
receiver is called a channel.
• These channels can be:
❖ upward (e.g. employee to employer)
❖ downward (e.g. employer to employee)
❖ lateral (sideways – workers on same level)
❖ informal (grapevine - gossip)
 MODES OF COMMUNICATION

• Formal communication – speaking or writing in a professional

manner.
E.g. business letter, a meeting with business clients, helping a
customer.

• Informal communication – speaking or writing in a more casual

way.
E.g. talking to colleagues during tea break, team events
 COMMUNICATION CHANNELS IN
WORKPLACE

Communication channel – medium through which a message is

sent.

Communication channels in the workplace can be:

• Formal
• Informal
• unofficial
 FORMAL COMMUNICATION
CHANNEL
• Used to communicate policies, meeting documents,
performance appraisals, annual reports, guidelines,
constitution of the company.
• Usually from manager to employees (top-down)
• Promotes transparency
• Motivates employees
• Prevents the spread of talk around personal matters.
 INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
CHANNEL

• Takes place together with formal communication

• No chain of command
• Needs to be monitored to avoid disruptions.
e.g. teambuilding workshops, employee training sessions, end of
year functions.
UNOFFICIAL COMMUNICATION
CHANNEL
• Interpersonal – (3-12 individuals and face-to-face)
• Grapevine (gossip)
• Employees are always informed
• Helps prepare employees for big news events
• Can lead to division amongst employees
• Should encourage healthy employer/employee relationships
 VERBAL COMMUNICATION

• Any communication involving words.

• Two categories of verbal communication:

❑Oral communication (spoken words, e.g. telephone
conversation, interview, etc.)
❑Written communication (written words e.g. business letter, e-
mail, internal memo, etc.)
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
 NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION

• Communication that takes place without spoken and written

words.
• Non-verbal communication can reinforce or contradict the
speaker’s words.
• Consist of symbols that
convey meaning.
EXAMPLES OF NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
 NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Functions of non-verbal communication:

• EXPRESSING MEANING

• MODIFYING VERBAL MESSAGES

 NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Verbal messages can be modified (changed slightly/ improved)
by:
• Complementing - the non-verbal message complements the
verbal message

“MY HEAD IS SO SORE.” VERBAL

 NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
• Accenting - When
the non-verbal message
enforces the verbal message.

‘NO, NO, NO !!!”

 NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
• Repeating - When
the non-verbal message is
used to repeat verbal message.
Example:
Verbal message:
• Speaker One: Can I borrow R100?
• Speaker Two: Of Course!
• Speaker One: Really?
Non-verbal message:
• Speaker Two:
 NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
• Substituting - When
a non-verbal response
substitutes a verbal response
Example:

Verbal

Speaker one: “Where is my chair?”

NON-VERBAL

Speaker two:
 NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
• Contradicting – when the verbal message and the non-
verbal message contradict each other.

YES I
AM! ARE YOU NOT
EXCITED?
 NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Non-verbal codes include:

• Kinesics – refers to movements of the body

i.e. body language, facial expressions,
gestures
• Haptics – a form of non-verbal
communication that relies on touch i.e.
examining a patient, getting someone’s
attention and greetings.
 NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
• Proxemics – the physical distance
between individuals communicating.
• Chronemics – the role and use of time and
how it is perceived and valued by others.
(e.g. long pauses, looking at watch)
• Eye contact, posture, vocal features
PROXEMICS
 NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
 BARRIERS TO
COMMUNICATION
Definition

• According to Cleary barriers refer to any factor(s) that

prevent or hinder the smooth flow of the message from the
sender to the receiver (2003: 11)
• Also referred to as a distortion or noise.
 BARRIERS TO
COMMUNICATION
Five different categories are:

• Frame of reference barriers

• Perceptual barriers
• Noise barriers
• Medium barriers
• Feedback barriers
 1. FRAME OF REFERENCE
BARRIERS
Definition
It is the sum of an individual’s cultural and educational
background, attitudes, values, beliefs, physical attributes, age
and gender. (Cleary 2003: 12)

• It refers to who you are and why you are the way you are.
 2. PERCEPTION
WHAT DO YOU SEE?

Picture 1 Picture 2

Picture 3 Picture 4
 2. PERCEPTUAL BARRIERS
• Perception is the way we make sense of the things and
our world around us.
• It is a way of interpreting information provided by the
world around us.

• Perceptual breakdowns take place because of:

• Past experiences –people have different experiences
• Selection – you select what you are interested in or
familiar with.
• Needs - influenced and motivated by your physical
and psychological needs.
 PERCEPTUAL BARRIERS

• Perceptual breakdowns take place because of:

• Past experiences –people have different experiences
• Selection – you select what you are interested in or
familiar with.
• Needs - influenced and motivated by your physical and
psychological needs.
• Your education and intelligence levels influence how
you perceive a situation.
• Language – understand others’ language/words and
meaning.
 3. NOISE BARRIERS

• Noise – refers to any distortion or disruption or breakdown of the

communication process. It has a negative effect on the process.

• Noise is divided into:

❖Physical noise – caused by physical factors e.g. a bang,
shouting, a crowded room.
❖Psychological noise – internal disruption
e.g. poor pronunciation, bad spelling and
grammar, typing errors, ambiguity, appearance (internal
because it is inside your mind)
 NOISE BARRIERS

PHYSICAL BARRIER PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIER

 MEDIUM BARRIERS

• There are various ways of transmitting messages.

Examples: writing, speaking to someone, telephone, fax.
• Choosing the correct medium for the appropriate context
is fundamental i.e. formal, business, social
 FEEDBACK BARRIERS
• If the sender sends a message that is inadequately encoded,
the receiver will give inappropriate feedback. This will result
in a break down in communication. (e.g. giving too little
information, incorrect information or making assumptions)
FEEDBACK BARRIERS