Nutrition in Animals

1) Basic Concept
 Nutrition is the process by which living organisms obtain and utilize food for energy,
growth, and repair.
 Animals cannot make their own food (like plants); they depend on plants or other
animals for food.
 Hence, animals are heterotrophs.

2) Types of Animal Nutrition

Animals follow different types of nutrition to meet their energy needs:
a) Holozoic Nutrition
 Animals ingest solid or liquid food.
 Five Steps of Nutrition in Animals (in Sequence)
i. Ingestion: Taking food into the body. Example: Bees suck nectar, snakes swallow
prey, humans use hands.
ii. Digestion: Conversion of complex food into simple, absorbable forms using
enzymes and digestive juices. Example: Carbohydrates like sucrose → Glucose.
iii. Absorption: Digested food is absorbed into the bloodstream (in humans) and
delivered to body cells.
iv. Assimilation: The absorbed food is used by cells to generate energy, growth, and
repair.
v. Egestion; Removal of undigested or unabsorbed food from the body as waste.
Types of Holozoic Animals
 Herbivores – Eat only plants. (e.g., Cow, Goat, Deer)
 Carnivores – Eat only flesh. (e.g., Lion, Snake, Eagle)
 Omnivores – Eat both plants and animals. (e.g., Humans, Bears, Crow)
b) Parasitic Nutrition
 Parasites live on or inside another living organism (host) and derive nutrients from it.
 Ectoparasites – Live on the body of the host. (e.g., Lice, Ticks, Leeches)
 Endoparasites – Live inside the body of the host. (e.g., Tapeworm, Hookworm,
Plasmodium)
c) Saprophytic Nutrition
 Feed on dead and decaying organic matter. Example: Earthworm, Euglena (in
absence of light).
d) Symbiotic Nutrition
 Two organisms live together and share nutrients. (Note: Not explained in full in the
given text, but it's part of major types.)

3) Special Cases
 Euglena – Shows both autotrophic (photosynthesis) and heterotrophic (saprophytic)
nutrition.
 Scavengers – Eat dead bodies of animals. (e.g., Vulture, Hyena)

4) Modes of Ingestion in Animals

Animals ingest food using various structures adapted to their environment and food type:
Animal Mode of Ingestion / Feeding Tool
Frog Uses long sticky tongue to catch insects
Lizard / Chameleon Use long tongue to catch prey
Butterfly Sucks nectar using feeding tube
Mosquito Male: Nectar; Female: Nectar + Blood
Infants (Humans, Cow, Suck mother’s milk
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 etc.)
Lice Suck blood from scalp
Housefly Sucks liquid food; converts solid to liquid by saliva
Ants Bite and chew food
Snails Scrape algae off surfaces
Snakes Swallow prey whole (e.g., rat)
Eagle Tears flesh using hooked beak
Amoeba Engulfs food with pseudopodia (false feet)
Hydra Uses tentacles to catch prey and push into mouth
Spider Catches prey in web
Crow Uses beak to pick up food
Humans Use hands to eat
Starfish Pushes stomach out, surrounds prey, digests externally

Examples of Ingestion Methods in Various Organisms

Organism Mode of Ingestion / Feeding Details/Notes
Method
Human beings Use hands to put food into mouth; Chewing strengthens jaw
chew and swallow muscles; average person chews
>1000 times a day
Infants & many Suck mother's milk Nutritional intake by sucking
mammals
Humming bird Sucks nectar from flowers Uses specialized beak to extract
nectar
Snake Swallows prey whole without Swallowing large prey directly
chewing
Frog Captures prey with sticky tongue Quick tongue movement to catch
insects
Earthworm Swallows food using muscular Muscular action to ingest soil and
pharynx organic matter
Spider Weaves sticky webs to trap Uses venom to immobilize prey,
insects; sucks their body fluids then sucks fluids
after injecting venom
Aquatic filter Filter tiny food particles from water Feed on suspended particles
feeders
Amoeba Engulfs food by surrounding it with Food digested inside vacuole,
(unicellular) pseudopodia; forms food vacuole undigested waste expelled
Paramecium Cilia create water currents to Similar intracellular digestion as
(unicellular) direct food into oral groove; forms amoeba
food vacuole
Hydra Uses tentacles with stinging cells Stinging cells kill prey; ingestion
(multicellular) to capture prey; pushes food into via mouth
body cavity
Herbivores (e.g. Swallow grass quickly, partially Known as ruminants; special
cows) digest in rumen, regurgitate cud digestive adaptation
for chewing
Insects Use proboscis (tube-like sucking Suck nectar or blood
(mosquitoes, organ)
bees)
Chameleons Capture prey with sticky tongue Similar to frogs
Special Notes
1. Amoeba's ingestion process:
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 1. Senses food.
2. Surrounds food with pseudopodia.
3. Forms a food vacuole.
4. Secretes enzymes (from lysosomes) into the vacuole to digest food.
5. Absorbs nutrients; expels undigested waste through cell membrane.
2. Paramecium's ingestion: Uses cilia to sweep food into oral groove, forms food
vacuole similarly to amoeba.
3. Ruminants: Animals like cows that chew cud — food is first fermented in stomach
(rumen), regurgitated, and then chewed again for better digestion.
Egestion
 The removal of undigested waste (faeces) from the body.
 Faecal matter is expelled through the anus.
 Also called defecation.

5) Importance of Food for Animals

 Animals need food for:
o Energy
o Growth
o Repair of body parts
o Carrying out life processes
🍎 Food Item – Nutrient – Role Table
Food Item Nutrients Obtained Role of Nutrients
Rice / Bread Carbohydrates Provides energy
Pulses / Dal Proteins Helps in growth and repair of body tissues
Milk / Cheese Calcium, Protein Strengthens bones and teeth
Fruits / Vitamins and Boost immunity, help body functions
Vegetables Minerals

📚 Definitions
1. Nutrition: The process of eating food and its absorption in the body to release
nutrients.
2. Omnivores: Animals that eat both plant and animal-based food (e.g. Humans, Bears).
3. Scavengers: Animals that eat dead animals (e.g. Vultures).
4. Egestion: Process of removing undigested waste from the body.

🌱 Difference Between Nutrition in Plants and Animals

Feature Nutrition in Plants Nutrition in Animals
(Autotrophic) (Heterotrophic)
1. Type of Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition
Nutrition
2. Food Plants make their own food Animals cannot make their own food;
Preparation using sunlight, water, CO₂, and they get it from plants or other
minerals animals
3. Source of Use sunlight as the source of Depend on already prepared food for
Energy energy (photosynthesis) energy
4. Example Green plants, algae Humans, lions, cows, frogs, etc.
Organisms
5. Special Cases Some plants like Drosera, Some bacteria like cyanobacteria are
Venus flytrap are heterotrophic autotrophic
6. Mode of Mainly autotrophic (self- Entirely heterotrophic (other-
Nutrition feeding) feeding), except rare autotrophic

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 bacteria

🐄 Classification of Animals Based on Modes of Nutrition

1. Holozoic Nutrition
 Animals ingest complex organic food into their bodies.
 Food is digested internally by enzymes produced by the body.
 Undigested waste is expelled from the body.
 Examples: Amoeba, Human beings.
 Amoeba uses pseudopods to engulf food and forms food vacuoles for digestion.
2. Parasitic Nutrition
 Parasites live on or inside other living organisms (hosts).
 Parasites obtain food and shelter from the host.
 The host may be harmed by the parasite.
 Examples: Tapeworm (inside human intestine), Leeches (on mammals).
3. Saprophytic Nutrition
 Saprophytes feed on dead and decaying organic matter.
 They secrete enzymes outside their body to digest food externally.
 The digested nutrients are then absorbed.
 Examples: Fungi, many bacteria.
4. Detritivore Nutrition
 Detritivores feed on dead plant and animal matter.
 They help break down this matter and recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem.
 Includes microorganisms and larger organisms.
 Examples: Bacteria, fungi, insects, earthworms.

Quick Visual Reference:

Mode of How They Get Food Example Organisms
Nutrition
Holozoic Ingest and digest food inside the body Amoeba, Human beings
Parasitic Live on/in host and feed on host's nutrients Tapeworms, Leeches
Saprophytic Digest food externally, then absorb Fungi, bacteria
nutrients
Detritivore Feed on dead organic matter Earthworms, insects,
fungi

Nutrition in Microorganisms and Animals

1. Cell Structure Overview
 Cell: Basic unit of life.
 Plant and Animal Cells:
o Have cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm.
o Cytoplasm contains organelles like mitochondria, Golgi bodies, ribosomes.
 Differences: Plant cells have organelles not found in animal cells (like chloroplasts,
large vacuole, cell wall).

2. Nutrition in Bacteria
 Bacteria: Unicellular microorganisms without a nucleus or membrane-bound
organelles.
 Some bacteria are autotrophic (make own food).
 Others are heterotrophic (obtain food from other organisms).
 Mode of nutrition: Diffusion through body surface.
 Food molecules enter by diffusion and are digested to release energy.

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3. Nutrition in Amoeba
 Amoeba: Unicellular organism living in water.
 Moves using pseudopodia (false feet).
 Performs all 5 steps of nutrition in one cell:
1. Ingestion: Pseudopodia surround food, forming a food vacuole.
2. Digestion: Enzymes digest food inside vacuole.
3. Absorption: Digested food diffuses into cytoplasm.
4. Assimilation: Nutrients used for growth and repair.
5. Egestion: Undigested waste expelled via vacuole.

4. Nutrition in Paramecium
 Covered with tiny hair-like structures called cilia.
 Cilia beat to push food particles into oral groove.
 Food vacuole forms; digestion, absorption, assimilation happen like in amoeba.
 Waste expelled through anal pore.

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5. Nutrition in Hydra
 Multicellular aquatic animal with tentacles around mouth.
 Tentacles catch and kill small prey.
 Food pushed into gastrovascular cavity.
 Digestive juices digest food inside body.
 Nutrients absorbed for use.

6. Nutrition in Spider
 Weaves sticky webs to trap insects.
 Injects digestive juices to dissolve prey’s body parts outside its body.
 Sucks up digested liquid food.

7. Nutrition in Insects (Mosquito, Housefly, Butterfly)

 Have a feeding organ called proboscis for sucking.
 Mosquito sucks blood directly.
 Butterfly sucks nectar from flowers.
 Housefly dissolves solid food with saliva then sucks the liquid.

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8. Nutrition in Frog
 Amphibian living on land and water.
 Uses long sticky tongue to catch prey.
 Digestion takes place inside the body by digestive juices.

9. Nutrition in Starfish
 Marine animal with tube feet.
 Captures prey using tube feet.
 Pops stomach out through mouth to envelop prey.
 Stomach retracts into body; digestion takes place internally.

Important Terms
Term Definition
Pseudopodi False feet of amoeba used for movement and capturing food.
a
Cilia Hair-like structures on paramecium that help in movement and feeding.
Proboscis Tube-like feeding organ in some insects used for sucking food or
fluids.

Quick Q&A Summary

 Bacteria cause diseases, e.g., tuberculosis.
 Amoeba ingests food using pseudopodia.
 Paramecium uses cilia to push food into oral groove.
 Hydra catches prey with tentacles (not pseudopodia).
 Frogs catch prey with sticky tongue, not proboscis.

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  Spiders capture prey with webs, not tentacles.

Human Digestive System: Overview

The human digestive system is responsible for breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, and
removing waste.
 Main Functions
1. Digestion: Breaking food into smaller, soluble substances.
2. Absorption: Nutrients from digested food are absorbed by the body.
3. Excretion: Undigested and unabsorbed food is removed as faeces.
 Main Components
The digestive system has two major parts:
1. Alimentary Canal (Digestive Tract)
2. Associated Digestive Glands
Alimentary Canal (in sequence): The alimentary canal is a long, continuous tube
in the body through which food passes during digestion. It is also called the digestive
tract.
Length: In an adult human, the alimentary canal is approximately 7.5 metres
long.
Main Compartments (in sequence)
1. Mouth (Buccal Cavity) – Where food enters and chewing begins.
2. Oesophagus (Food Pipe) – Connects mouth to stomach.
3. Stomach – A muscular organ where food is mixed and partially digested.
4. Small Intestine – Most digestion and absorption happens here.
5. Large Intestine – Absorbs water and forms faeces.
6. Rectum – Stores faeces.
7. Anus – Opening through which faeces is expelled.
Associated Digestive Glands
1. Salivary Glands: Located in the mouth; produce saliva containing enzymes.
2. Liver: Largest gland in the body, reddish-brown, on the right side of the abdomen;
produces bile.
3. Gall Bladder: Stores bile (though not mentioned in first passage, it’s part of the
system).
4. Pancreas: Cream-colored gland below the stomach; produces digestive enzymes.
Digestive Juices
 Produced by: Salivary glands, stomach walls, pancreas, liver, and small intestine.
 Function: Help break down complex food substances into simpler, absorbable forms.

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🦷 Digestion in the Mouth (Buccal/Oral Cavity)
🔹 Key Organs Involved
 Teeth
 Tongue
 Salivary Glands
 Palate (roof of the mouth)

🦷 Teeth
Teeth help in cutting, tearing, grinding, and crushing the food.
Type of Number per Jaw Function
Tooth
Incisors 4 Cutting/Biting food
Canines 2 Tearing food
Premolars 4 Grinding and crushing
Molars 6 Heavy grinding and chewing
 Total teeth in an adult: 32 (16 in each jaw)
 Milk teeth (baby teeth): 20 in total
 Wisdom teeth: Last set of molars appearing after age 18
🦷 Structure of a Tooth includes:
 Crown, Neck, Root
 Covered by enamel – the hardest substance in the body

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Dental Formula – Description
The dental formula is a short and standardized way to describe the number and types of
teeth present in one half of the upper and lower jaws of an animal, including humans. It
helps to understand how many teeth of each type are present and their arrangement.

Dental Formula of an Adult Human:

2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3
This formula is read as:
Type of Teeth Upper Jaw (one Lower Jaw (one side)
side)
Incisors 2 2
Canines 1 1
Premolars 2 2
Molars 3 3
 The top row (before the slash) shows the number of each type of tooth in one side of
the upper jaw.
 The bottom row (after the slash) shows the number of each type of tooth in one side
of the lower jaw.
Since this is for one side, we multiply by 2 (for both sides of the mouth):

Total Teeth in an Adult Human:

Type Total in Mouth (Both Function
Jaws)
Incisors 8 (4 upper, 4 lower) Cutting or biting food
Canines 4 (2 upper, 2 lower) Tearing food

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 Premolar 8 (4 upper, 4 lower) Grinding and crushing food
s
Molars 12 (6 upper, 6 lower) Grinding and chewing food
Total teeth: 8 + 4 + 8 + 12 = 32

Key Points:
 The dental formula only shows teeth on one half of the jaws.
 Multiply by 2 to get the full number for the entire mouth.
 Enamel, which covers the crown of each tooth, is the hardest substance in the
human body.
 Humans have two sets of teeth in their lifetime:
o Milk teeth (deciduous teeth) – 20 total.
o Permanent teeth – 32 total.
🦷 1. Human (Omnivore)
 Dental formula (Adult):
2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3
Total teeth: 32
Diet: Omnivorous — teeth suited for cutting, tearing, and grinding.
🐶 2. Dog (Carnivore)
 Dental formula (Adult):
3.1.4.2 / 3.1.4.3
Total teeth: 42
Diet: Carnivorous — sharp canines and carnassials for tearing meat.
🐱 3. Cat (Carnivore)
 Dental formula (Adult):
3.1.3.1 / 3.1.2.1
Total teeth: 30
Diet: Obligate carnivore — fewer molars, large canines for catching prey.
🐄 4. Cow (Herbivore)
 Dental formula (Adult):
0.0.3.3 / 3.1.3.3
Total teeth: 32
Note: No upper incisors or canines. Cows have a dental pad instead.
Diet: Herbivorous — grinding teeth for chewing plant material.
🐴 5. Horse (Herbivore)
 Dental formula (Adult):
3.1.3.3 / 3.1.3.3
Total teeth: 40
Diet: Herbivorous — large flat molars for grinding grasses.
🐷 6. Pig (Omnivore)
 Dental formula (Adult):
3.1.4.3 / 3.1.4.3
Total teeth: 44
Diet: Omnivorous — teeth adapted for both grinding and tearing.
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🐇 7. Rabbit (Herbivore)
 Dental formula:
2.0.3.3 / 1.0.2.3
Total teeth: 28
Note: Prominent incisors for gnawing, no canines. A gap (diastema) exists between
incisors and premolars.

Summary Table:
Anima Dental Formula (one side) Total Diet
l Teeth
Human 2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3 32 Omnivore
Dog 3.1.4.2 / 3.1.4.3 42 Carnivore
Cat 3.1.3.1 / 3.1.2.1 30 Carnivore
Cow 0.0.3.3 / 3.1.3.3 32 Herbivore
Horse 3.1.3.3 / 3.1.3.3 40 Herbivore
Pig 3.1.4.3 / 3.1.4.3 44 Omnivore
Rabbit 2.0.3.3 / 1.0.2.3 28 Herbivore
 At birth, a human infant has no teeth.
 After six months or so, the first teeth appear in the centre of the lower jaw.
 Milk teeth are twenty in number.

🦷 Tooth Decay
🔹 What is Tooth Decay?
Tooth decay is the damage to the structure of the tooth, especially the enamel, caused by the
action of bacteria on leftover food particles (mainly sugar). It can lead to cavities, pain, and
even tooth loss.
🔹 How Does Tooth Decay Happen?
1. After eating, leftover food, especially sugary items, may remain stuck between the
teeth.
2. Bacteria in the mouth act on the sugar present in these leftovers.
3. These bacteria produce acid as a result of their activity.
4. This acid erodes the enamel (the hard outer layer of the tooth), leading to tooth decay.
🔹 Plaque Formation
 A soft, sticky layer called plaque forms on teeth and gums due to bacteria acting on
food particles.
 Plaque traps acid and bacteria near the tooth surface, accelerating decay.
 It can also damage the gums and the fibres that hold teeth in place, causing loosening
of teeth.
🔹 Consequences of Tooth Decay
 Cavities (holes in the teeth)
 Pain and sensitivity
 Loose teeth
 Tooth loss
✅ Tips to Prevent Tooth Decay
Tip Reason
🪥 Brush twice daily Removes food particles and plaque
💧 Rinse mouth after every meal Washes away food and sugar
🔁 Replace toothbrush when bristles wear Old brushes are less effective
out
🙅‍♂️Don't share your toothbrush Prevents infection and cross-contamination
🧴 Use fluoride toothpaste Fluoride strengthens enamel and resists acid
attack
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 🍫 Limit sugary foods (chocolates, pastries) Reduces food for bacteria
🥤 Avoid aerated drinks They are acidic and damage enamel
🦷 Get regular dental checkups Early detection and prevention of decay

👅 Tongue
The tongue plays multiple roles:
 Mixes food with saliva
 Pushes food toward the oesophagus
 Helps in swallowing the food (forming a bolus)
 Tastes food using taste buds that detect:
o Sweet
o Sour
o Salty
o Bitter
 Assists in speech

💧 Salivary Glands and Saliva

 Three pairs of salivary glands secrete saliva
 Saliva contains amylase (ptyalin) enzyme:
o Breaks down starch into maltose (a sugar)
 Saliva also moistens food, making it easier to chew and swallow

⚙️Process of Digestion in Mouth

1. Ingestion: Food enters through the mouth.
2. Mastication: Teeth cut and grind food; food becomes small and soft.
3. Saliva Action: Starch in the food is partially digested by salivary amylase.
4. Bolus Formation: Chewed food + saliva = bolus
5. Swallowing: Tongue pushes bolus to the back of the mouth.
6. Peristalsis: The bolus moves through the oesophagus into the stomach by wave-like
muscle contractions.

🧪 Activity: Effect of Saliva on Starch

 Starch + Iodine → Blue-black color (indicates presence of starch)
 Starch + Saliva + Time → No color change (starch is broken into sugar)

🦷 Dental Care Tips

 Brush twice daily
 Use dental floss
 Avoid sugary foods and soft drinks
 Regular dental check-ups
🧠 Did You Know?
 Enamel is the hardest material in the human body.

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  Elephant tusks are actually elongated incisors.
 The mesentery is a newly discovered organ that connects intestines to the abdomen.

🟫 Oesophagus (Food Pipe)

 The oesophagus is a muscular tube about 25 cm long that connects the mouth
(buccal cavity) to the stomach.
 It is also called the food pipe.
 Located in the neck and chest, it does not carry out any digestion.
🔄 How Food Moves Through the Oesophagus
 The food is pushed into the oesophagus by the tongue and swallowed.
 Food moves through the oesophagus by a special muscular movement called
peristalsis:
o This involves alternating contractions and relaxations of the muscles in the
oesophagus walls.
o It creates a wave-like motion that pushes food down toward the stomach.
⚠️Important Notes
 Peristalsis is an involuntary process — it happens automatically, without our control.
 In cases of vomiting, the food moves backwards, from the stomach to the mouth, by a
reverse movement called anti-peristalsis.
 No digestion occurs in the oesophagus — it only serves as a passage for food.
🧠 Quick Recap Table
Feature Description
Structure Muscular tube, ~25 cm long
Other name Food pipe
Function Connects mouth to stomach
Movement of By peristalsis (wave-like muscular contractions)
food
Digestion ❌ No digestion happens here
Special condition Food can move back up during vomiting (anti-peristalsis)

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🟪 Stomach: Structure and Functions
🔸 Structure of the Stomach
 The stomach is a J-shaped, muscular, elastic sac located on the left side of the
abdomen.
 It is the widest part of the alimentary canal.
 It lies between the oesophagus and the small intestine.
 The stomach can hold up to 2 litres of food at a time.

🔸 Secretions of the Stomach: The inner lining of the stomach contains gastric glands
that secrete:
1. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
o Kills harmful microorganisms in food.
o Provides an acidic medium for the enzyme pepsin to work effectively.
2. Pepsin (enzyme)
o Begins the digestion of proteins by breaking them into simpler substances
(peptides).
3. Mucus
o Protects the stomach lining from being digested by its own acid and enzymes.

🔸 Digestion in the Stomach

1. Physical Breakdown
 The muscles of the stomach wall contract and relax, mixing the food with digestive
juices — this is called churning.
 This mechanical digestion breaks food into smaller pieces.
Churning of food:
o Muscular walls gently contract and relax, mixing food with gastric juices.
o This physical movement forms a semi-liquid mixture called chyme.
2. Chemical Breakdown
 Pepsin breaks down proteins into smaller molecules.
 HCl:
o Kills bacteria.
o Activates pepsin.
3. Protection from self-digestion:
 The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucus (mucosa).
 Mucosa protects the stomach walls from the corrosive action of acid and
enzymes.

🔸 Functions of the Stomach

Function Description
💪 Churning Muscular movement to mix food with juices
🔬 Protein Digestion Enzyme pepsin breaks proteins into simpler substances
🛡 Protection HCl kills microbes; mucus protects the stomach lining

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🕒 Storage Stores food for a few minutes to several hours
➡ Transfer Sends partially digested food to the small intestine

🔹 Summary
Component Role
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Kills germs, activates pepsin, creates acidic medium
Pepsin Digests proteins
Mucus Protects stomach walls from acid and enzymes
Muscle Movements Churns food for mixing

What Happens to Food in the Stomach?

 Partially digested food from the mouth reaches the stomach via the oesophagus.
 It is mixed and broken down physically (churning) and chemically (enzymes + acid).
 The resulting chyme moves into the small intestine for further digestion and
absorption.

📘 The Story of the Stomach with a Hole

📌 1. Accidental Incident
 On 6 June 1822, Alexis St Martin, a Canadian man, was accidentally shot in the
stomach.
 He was treated by Dr. William Beaumont, an American army doctor.
 Martin survived, but the wound left a permanent hole in his stomach (a gastric
fistula).
📌 2. A Rare Medical Opportunity
 The hole did not heal completely, giving Dr. Beaumont a unique chance to
observe digestion in a living human.
 This was the first time such direct observation of the stomach’s working was
possible.
📌 3. Experiments by Dr. Beaumont
 He tied food to a string and inserted it through the hole into Martin’s stomach.
 After a few hours, he would pull out the food and observe how much it had been
digested.
 He noted that the stomach churned the food as part of the digestion process.
📌 4. Chemical Nature of Digestion
 Dr. Beaumont extracted gastric juice from Martin’s stomach.
 He used this juice to digest food outside the body (in cups).
 This proved that gastric juice could chemically break down food into nutrients.
📌 5. Important Discovery
 Dr. Beaumont discovered that:
o Digestion is primarily a chemical process, not just a mechanical one.

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 oThe gastric juices play a key role in breaking down food for nutrient
absorption.
📌 6. Scientific Significance
 Dr. Beaumont’s work laid the foundation for modern digestive physiology.
 Alexis St Martin is known as the “man with a window into his stomach”.
 This story is considered a milestone in medical science.

🧠 Small Intestine – Structure, Digestion, and Absorption

📌 1. Structure and Location
 The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal, about 6–7.5 metres
long.
 Despite its length, it is called "small" because of its narrow diameter.
 It is a highly coiled, tubular structure located in the lower abdomen.
 It connects the stomach to the large intestine.

📌 2. Parts of the Small Intestine

1. Duodenum:
o First and shortest part.
o Receives bile from the liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreas through the
hepatopancreatic duct.
2. Jejunum:
o Middle part.
o Contains numerous digestive glands in its walls.
3. Ileum:
o Final and longest part.
o Contains villi for absorption of digested food.

📌 3. Digestion in the Small Intestine (Chemical Breakdown)

 Complete digestion of food occurs here with the help of:
o Bile juice (from liver):
 Stored in gall bladder.
 Emulsifies fats (breaks large fat globules into small droplets).
o Pancreatic juice (from pancreas):
 Digests all components:
 Fats → Fatty acids + Glycerol
 Proteins → Amino acids
 Starch → Simple sugars (like glucose)
o Intestinal juice (from small intestine walls):
 Completes the digestion of:
 Carbohydrates → Glucose
 Proteins → Amino acids

📌 4. Absorption in the Small Intestine

 The inner walls of the ileum are lined with millions of villi (singular: villus).
 Villi:
o Are tiny, finger-like projections.
o Increase surface area for maximum absorption.
o Contain a network of blood capillaries.
 Absorbed nutrients:
o Glucose: Used for energy in cells.
o Amino acids: Used for body growth and repair (protein synthesis).
o Fatty acids + Glycerol: Used to build fat reserves and cell membranes.

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  This nutrient transport into the blood is called absorption.
 Once absorbed, the nutrients are carried by blood to all body cells – this process is
called assimilation.

📌 5. Role in the Digestive System

 Main site for digestion of:
o Proteins
o Carbohydrates
o Fats
 Main site for nutrient absorption into the bloodstream.
 Indigestible food and fiber move on to the large intestine.

📌 6. Fun Fact
Vitamins and minerals do not need digestion. They are absorbed by the small intestine in
their original form.

🧠 Absorption of Digested Food in Small Intestine

1. Definition:
The process by which digested food passes into the blood vessels through the inner
walls of the small intestine.
2. Site of Absorption:
o Small intestine, especially its inner lining.
3. Structure Adapted for Absorption:
o The inner wall has millions of finger-like projections called villi (singular:
villus).
o Villi provide a very large surface area for rapid absorption.
4. Function of Villi:
o Each villus contains a network of fine blood capillaries.
o The surface of the villi absorbs nutrients (glucose, amino acids, fatty acids,
etc.).
o Nutrients enter the bloodstream through these capillaries.
5. Transport of Nutrients:
o Blood carries absorbed nutrients to different parts of the body for use.
o This transport supports energy production, growth, and repair.

🔬 Assimilation of Food
1. Definition:
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 The process of utilizing absorbed nutrients by body cells for various functions.
o
2. Main Processes in Assimilation:
o Glucose → Broken down in cells (with oxygen) → Carbon dioxide + Water +
Energy (via cellular respiration).
o Amino acids → Used to build and repair body tissues (proteins).
o Fatty acids + Glycerol → Used to build cell components or stored under skin
as energy reserves.
3. Special Note:
o Vitamins and minerals don’t need digestion and are absorbed as they are.

🧾 Additional Notes:
 Undigested food: Passes from small intestine → large intestine.
 Vermiform appendix: A vestigial organ near the start of the large intestine. A small,
tube-like structure attached to the large intestine. Vestigial organ: An organ that no longer
performs its original function, often due to evolutionary changes. In humans, the
appendix once helped in digesting cellulose (in ancestral plant-based diets), but is
no longer needed for this function.
 Saliva (from salivary glands in the mouth): Begins starch digestion but not related to
absorption in the small intestine.

🧠Large Intestine And Egestion

📍 Structure and Location
 The large intestine is the last part of the alimentary canal.
 It is approximately 1.5 metres long.
 It is wider in diameter but shorter in length than the small intestine.
 It consists of four parts:
 Caecum
 Colon
 Rectum
 Anal canal

⚙️Functions of the Large Intestine

 The large intestine does not carry out digestion.
 It receives undigested and unabsorbed food from the small intestine.
 Absorbs most of the water and necessary salts from the waste material.
 Remaining material becomes semi-solid faeces.
 It allows absorption of certain nutrients still left in the waste.

🧪 Rectum and Anus

 The rectum stores the semi-solid faecal matter temporarily.
 The anus is the final opening of the digestive system.
 Faeces are expelled from the rectum through the anus by the process of defecation.

🚽 Egestion
 The process of removing undigested solid waste from the body is called egestion.
 It is the final stage of the digestive process.

🔍 Did You Know?

 Helpful microorganisms (like E. coli) live in the large intestine and aid in certain
functions.
 Heimlich Manoeuvre is a life-saving technique used to dislodge food stuck in the
windpipe (trachea).

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  Salivary Glands: Produce 1–2 litres of saliva each day.
 Small Intestine: In women, it is longer than in men.
 Digestive System Length: If stretched out, it would be 29 feet long.
 Stomach Growling Sound: It's called borborygmi.
 The digestive system of a sloth is just as slow as the animal itself. It can take up to a
month for a sloth to digest a single meal. This extremely slow digestion is due to:
o A low metabolic rate.
o A complex, multi-chambered stomach that slowly ferments plant material.
 Sloths rely on symbiotic bacteria to break down leaves, which are hard to digest and
low in nutrients. Because of their slow digestion, sloths defecate only about once a
week, which is a risky event for them as they have to come down from trees.

Digestive Glands
🧠 Salivary Glands
 There are three pairs of salivary glands: parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands.
 These glands are located in and around the mouth and open into the oral cavity through
small ducts.
 They secrete saliva, a watery fluid that contains:
o Amylase enzyme (ptyalin) – begins digestion by breaking down starch into
simple sugars (maltose).
o Mucus – helps in lubricating the food for easier swallowing.
o Water – dissolves food particles and aids in taste perception.
o Lysozyme – an antibacterial enzyme that helps kill harmful microbes.
 Saliva also helps in:
o Cleansing the mouth and maintaining oral hygiene.
o Forming the food bolus, making it easier to swallow.
 On average, 1–2 litres of saliva are produced daily (as per the fun fact from your
image).
 Saliva production can increase when we smell or think about food, a reflex controlled by
the nervous system.

🏥 LIVER – The Largest Gland of the Human Body

📍 Location & Structure
 Located on the right side of the abdomen.
 It is reddish-brown in colour.
 The largest gland in the human body.

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📌 Bile Juice
 Liver secretes bile juice, which:
o Is stored in the gall bladder, a sac-like structure under the liver.
o Is not an enzyme, but helps in digestion.
 Function of bile juice:
o Breaks down large fat molecules into tiny droplets (called emulsification).
o Makes it easier for enzymes to digest fats in the small intestine.

🔬 Functions of the Liver

1. Formation of Bile
o Helps in emulsification of fats and aids their absorption in the small intestine.
2. Detoxification
o Removes toxic substances and waste from the blood.
3. Storage of Vitamins
o Stores fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K and supplies them when needed by the
body.
4. Maintaining Body Temperature
o Carries out metabolic activities that release heat, thus helping maintain body
temperature.
5. Production of Anticoagulant
o Produces heparin, which is an anticoagulant that prevents blood clotting
inside blood vessels.

🧪 Role in Digestion
 Bile emulsifies fat, but does not chemically digest food.
 Helps prepare fats for chemical digestion by enzymes like those in pancreatic juice.

🩺 Pancreas – Key Facts, Functions & Role in Digestion (Point-wise)

1. Location & Appearance
o Cream-coloured, leaf-shaped gland positioned just below and slightly
behind the stomach in the upper abdomen.
o Connected to the duodenum (first part of the small intestine) by the pancreatic
duct.
2. Dual-Function Gland (Exocrine + Endocrine)
Aspect Exocrine Portion Endocrine Portion
Secretio Pancreatic juice (digestive Hormones – chiefly insulin
n enzymes) (also glucagon)
Where it Flows through the pancreatic duct Released directly into the
goes into the duodenum bloodstream
Main role Chemical digestion of food Regulation of blood-glucose
levels
3. Components & Actions of Pancreatic Juice (Exocrine)

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 Amylase → Starch → Simple sugars (e.g., glucose)
o
Trypsin / Other proteases → Proteins → Amino acids
o
Lipase (works best after bile emulsification) → Fats → Fatty acids + Glycerol
o
Alkaline bicarbonate neutralises acidic chyme arriving from the stomach,
o
creating an optimal pH (~7.8) for enzyme action.
4. Hormonal Role (Endocrine)
o Insulin: Lowers blood-glucose by promoting uptake of glucose into cells and
storage as glycogen.
o Glucagon: Raises blood-glucose by stimulating conversion of liver glycogen
back to glucose (not detailed in your notes but completes the picture).
5. Overall Contribution to Digestion
o Completes the breakdown of all three macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins,
fats).
o Works in concert with bile from the liver (emulsifies fats) and intestinal juice
(finishing digestion).
6. Clinical Note
o Pancreatic insufficiency (failure to produce enough enzymes) leads to
malabsorption and nutrient loss.
o Insulin deficiency causes diabetes mellitus, highlighting the pancreas’s vital
endocrine role.

Digestion in Humans
1. Human digestion involves the alimentary canal and associated glands like the liver and
pancreas.
2. Digestive juices contain enzymes that break down complex food into simpler forms.
3. Digestion starts in the mouth and ends in the small intestine, where nutrients are
absorbed.

Summary of Human Digestion Process

Part of Digestive Juices / Food Acted Upon End Products
Digestive Enzymes Formed
System
Mouth Saliva (contains Starch Sugars
amylase)
Stomach Gastric juice (contains Proteins Amino acids
pepsin)
Pancreas Pancreatic juice Proteins, starch, fats Amino acids,
(includes trypsin, lipase, maltose, fatty acids,
sucrase) glucose
Small Intestine Intestinal juice (contains Partially digested Glucose and other
several enzymes) proteins & simple sugars
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 carbohydrates

 Ruminants and Their Food

1. Ruminants are herbivorous animals that eat grass and plant leaves (e.g., cow,
buffalo, goat, sheep, deer, antelope, giraffe).
2. Grass is rich in cellulose, a tough carbohydrate that provides energy.
3. Ruminants can digest cellulose because of cellulose-digesting bacteria present in
their stomach.
4. Humans cannot digest cellulose because we do not have these bacteria.

Structure of Ruminant Stomach

Ruminants have a special stomach with four chambers:
1. Rumen:
o Largest chamber.
o Stores food temporarily.
o Contains bacteria that start digesting cellulose.
o Food here is partially digested into a substance called cud.
2. Reticulum:
o Helps in regurgitating the cud back to the mouth.
o Food moves back from here for re-chewing.
3. Omasum:
o Smallest chamber.
o Absorbs excess water from the food.
o Breaks food into smaller particles.
4. Abomasum:
o Also called the true stomach.
o Secretes gastric juices to digest food like in human stomach.
o Digestion is completed here before food moves to the intestine.
Note: Camels are an exception with only three chambers in their stomach.

Process of Digestion in Ruminants

1. While grazing, ruminants swallow grass quickly with minimal chewing.
2. The food goes into the rumen, where bacteria begin breaking down cellulose.
3. This partially digested food is called cud.
4. Later, when resting, the ruminant regurgitates the cud back to the mouth.
5. The cud is chewed thoroughly in the mouth—a process called rumination or
chewing the cud.
6. After thorough chewing, the food is swallowed again and passes sequentially through
reticulum → omasum → abomasum.
7. Finally, it enters the small intestine for:
o Completion of digestion
o Absorption of nutrients
8. The undigested part passes through the large intestine and is removed via the anus.

Supporting Organs
 Salivary glands: Help in moistening the food.
 Liver & Pancreas: Secrete digestive juices aiding in digestion.
 Caecum: A part of the large intestine; involved in cellulose fermentation.

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Why Do We Get Hiccups?
1. Windpipe (Trachea): Carries air from the nostrils to the lungs.
2. Food Pipe (Oesophagus): Carries food from the mouth to the stomach.
3. The windpipe and food pipe lie next to each other in the body.
4. In the throat, air and food share a common passage.
5. To prevent food from entering the windpipe:
o A flat cartilage flap called epiglottis covers the windpipe while swallowing.
o This ensures that food passes safely into the food pipe.
6. However, if we:
o Eat too quickly,
o Talk while eating, or
o Laugh during eating,
o Then the epiglottis may not close properly, and the windpipe may remain
slightly open.
7. As a result, food particles can enter the windpipe, causing:
o Hiccups, or
o A choking sensation.
8. Hiccups produce a repeated ‘gulping’ sound.
9. Hiccups are called ‘hichki’ in Hindi.
10. The blockage in the windpipe is usually cleared by coughing.

Diarrhoea
1. Definition: Diarrhoea is a condition in which a person passes watery stools
frequently.
2. Hindi Term: Diarrhoea is called ‘dast’ in Hindi.
3. Causes of Diarrhoea:
o Infection by disease-causing microorganisms.
o Food poisoning.
o Indigestion.
4. Prevalence:
o Very common in India, especially among children.
o One of the leading causes of death in small children in India.
5. Effect on the Body:
o Leads to loss of water and salts from the body.
o This condition is called dehydration.
6. Danger of Dehydration:
o Causes a person to become dangerously ill very quickly.
o Severe dehydration can even lead to death.

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 Therefore, diarrhoea should never be neglected.
o
7. Treatment - ORS (Oral Rehydration Solution):
o To prevent dehydration, the patient should be given ORS many times a day.
o ORS is a solution of sugar and salt in clean water.
o ORS replaces lost fluids and salts, and sugar provides energy.
o A simple ORS can be made at home by:
 Mixing 1 teaspoon of sugar and a pinch of salt in 1 glass of clean
(boiled and cooled) water.
8. Medical Attention: While giving ORS, a doctor should be consulted to treat the
underlying cause of diarrhoea.

Important Terms Related to Digestion

1. Bolus
o The swallowed food that has been chewed and mixed with saliva.
o It looks like a ball and moves down the food pipe through peristalsis.
2. Peristalsis
o The wave-like muscular movement that pushes the bolus down the
alimentary canal.
o It occurs in the oesophagus, stomach, and intestines.
3. Chyme
o A semi-liquid acidic fluid formed in the stomach after gastric juices act on the
food.
o It is later pushed into the small intestine for further digestion.
4. Emulsification
o The process of breaking down fats into tiny droplets.
o This is done by bile juice in the small intestine, making it easier for enzymes to
digest fats.
5. Villi
o Finger-like projections present on the inner walls of the small intestine.
o They increase the surface area for absorption of digested food into the
blood capillaries.
6. Chyle: In the small intestine, after digestion and absorption of fats, the resulting milky
fluid formed by the emulsification of fats is called chyle.

7. Defecation
o The process of egestion, i.e., the removal of undigested and unabsorbed food
from the body.
o It occurs through the anus at the end of the digestive process.
8. Ruminants
o Herbivorous animals (like cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, deer) that chew
partially digested food (called cud) after bringing it back from the stomach to
the mouth.
o They have a four-chambered stomach and perform a special digestion process
called rumination.
9. Plaque
o A soft, sticky substance that forms on teeth (often due to food particles and
bacteria).
10. Tooth Decay
o The destruction of teeth, often caused by plaque and poor dental hygiene.

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