Nutrition in Animal
Nutrition in Animal
1) Basic Concept
Nutrition is the process by which living organisms obtain and utilize food for energy,
growth, and repair.
Animals cannot make their own food (like plants); they depend on plants or other
animals for food.
Hence, animals are heterotrophs.
3) Special Cases
Euglena – Shows both autotrophic (photosynthesis) and heterotrophic (saprophytic)
nutrition.
Scavengers – Eat dead bodies of animals. (e.g., Vulture, Hyena)
📚 Definitions
1. Nutrition: The process of eating food and its absorption in the body to release
nutrients.
2. Omnivores: Animals that eat both plant and animal-based food (e.g. Humans, Bears).
3. Scavengers: Animals that eat dead animals (e.g. Vultures).
4. Egestion: Process of removing undigested waste from the body.
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bacteria
2. Nutrition in Bacteria
Bacteria: Unicellular microorganisms without a nucleus or membrane-bound
organelles.
Some bacteria are autotrophic (make own food).
Others are heterotrophic (obtain food from other organisms).
Mode of nutrition: Diffusion through body surface.
Food molecules enter by diffusion and are digested to release energy.
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3. Nutrition in Amoeba
Amoeba: Unicellular organism living in water.
Moves using pseudopodia (false feet).
Performs all 5 steps of nutrition in one cell:
1. Ingestion: Pseudopodia surround food, forming a food vacuole.
2. Digestion: Enzymes digest food inside vacuole.
3. Absorption: Digested food diffuses into cytoplasm.
4. Assimilation: Nutrients used for growth and repair.
5. Egestion: Undigested waste expelled via vacuole.
4. Nutrition in Paramecium
Covered with tiny hair-like structures called cilia.
Cilia beat to push food particles into oral groove.
Food vacuole forms; digestion, absorption, assimilation happen like in amoeba.
Waste expelled through anal pore.
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5. Nutrition in Hydra
Multicellular aquatic animal with tentacles around mouth.
Tentacles catch and kill small prey.
Food pushed into gastrovascular cavity.
Digestive juices digest food inside body.
Nutrients absorbed for use.
6. Nutrition in Spider
Weaves sticky webs to trap insects.
Injects digestive juices to dissolve prey’s body parts outside its body.
Sucks up digested liquid food.
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8. Nutrition in Frog
Amphibian living on land and water.
Uses long sticky tongue to catch prey.
Digestion takes place inside the body by digestive juices.
9. Nutrition in Starfish
Marine animal with tube feet.
Captures prey using tube feet.
Pops stomach out through mouth to envelop prey.
Stomach retracts into body; digestion takes place internally.
Important Terms
Term Definition
Pseudopodi False feet of amoeba used for movement and capturing food.
a
Cilia Hair-like structures on paramecium that help in movement and feeding.
Proboscis Tube-like feeding organ in some insects used for sucking food or
fluids.
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Spiders capture prey with webs, not tentacles.
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🦷 Digestion in the Mouth (Buccal/Oral Cavity)
🔹 Key Organs Involved
Teeth
Tongue
Salivary Glands
Palate (roof of the mouth)
🦷 Teeth
Teeth help in cutting, tearing, grinding, and crushing the food.
Type of Number per Jaw Function
Tooth
Incisors 4 Cutting/Biting food
Canines 2 Tearing food
Premolars 4 Grinding and crushing
Molars 6 Heavy grinding and chewing
Total teeth in an adult: 32 (16 in each jaw)
Milk teeth (baby teeth): 20 in total
Wisdom teeth: Last set of molars appearing after age 18
🦷 Structure of a Tooth includes:
Crown, Neck, Root
Covered by enamel – the hardest substance in the body
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Dental Formula – Description
The dental formula is a short and standardized way to describe the number and types of
teeth present in one half of the upper and lower jaws of an animal, including humans. It
helps to understand how many teeth of each type are present and their arrangement.
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Premolar 8 (4 upper, 4 lower) Grinding and crushing food
s
Molars 12 (6 upper, 6 lower) Grinding and chewing food
Total teeth: 8 + 4 + 8 + 12 = 32
Key Points:
The dental formula only shows teeth on one half of the jaws.
Multiply by 2 to get the full number for the entire mouth.
Enamel, which covers the crown of each tooth, is the hardest substance in the
human body.
Humans have two sets of teeth in their lifetime:
o Milk teeth (deciduous teeth) – 20 total.
o Permanent teeth – 32 total.
🦷 1. Human (Omnivore)
Dental formula (Adult):
2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3
Total teeth: 32
Diet: Omnivorous — teeth suited for cutting, tearing, and grinding.
🐶 2. Dog (Carnivore)
Dental formula (Adult):
3.1.4.2 / 3.1.4.3
Total teeth: 42
Diet: Carnivorous — sharp canines and carnassials for tearing meat.
🐱 3. Cat (Carnivore)
Dental formula (Adult):
3.1.3.1 / 3.1.2.1
Total teeth: 30
Diet: Obligate carnivore — fewer molars, large canines for catching prey.
🐄 4. Cow (Herbivore)
Dental formula (Adult):
0.0.3.3 / 3.1.3.3
Total teeth: 32
Note: No upper incisors or canines. Cows have a dental pad instead.
Diet: Herbivorous — grinding teeth for chewing plant material.
🐴 5. Horse (Herbivore)
Dental formula (Adult):
3.1.3.3 / 3.1.3.3
Total teeth: 40
Diet: Herbivorous — large flat molars for grinding grasses.
🐷 6. Pig (Omnivore)
Dental formula (Adult):
3.1.4.3 / 3.1.4.3
Total teeth: 44
Diet: Omnivorous — teeth adapted for both grinding and tearing.
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🐇 7. Rabbit (Herbivore)
Dental formula:
2.0.3.3 / 1.0.2.3
Total teeth: 28
Note: Prominent incisors for gnawing, no canines. A gap (diastema) exists between
incisors and premolars.
Summary Table:
Anima Dental Formula (one side) Total Diet
l Teeth
Human 2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3 32 Omnivore
Dog 3.1.4.2 / 3.1.4.3 42 Carnivore
Cat 3.1.3.1 / 3.1.2.1 30 Carnivore
Cow 0.0.3.3 / 3.1.3.3 32 Herbivore
Horse 3.1.3.3 / 3.1.3.3 40 Herbivore
Pig 3.1.4.3 / 3.1.4.3 44 Omnivore
Rabbit 2.0.3.3 / 1.0.2.3 28 Herbivore
At birth, a human infant has no teeth.
After six months or so, the first teeth appear in the centre of the lower jaw.
Milk teeth are twenty in number.
🦷 Tooth Decay
🔹 What is Tooth Decay?
Tooth decay is the damage to the structure of the tooth, especially the enamel, caused by the
action of bacteria on leftover food particles (mainly sugar). It can lead to cavities, pain, and
even tooth loss.
🔹 How Does Tooth Decay Happen?
1. After eating, leftover food, especially sugary items, may remain stuck between the
teeth.
2. Bacteria in the mouth act on the sugar present in these leftovers.
3. These bacteria produce acid as a result of their activity.
4. This acid erodes the enamel (the hard outer layer of the tooth), leading to tooth decay.
🔹 Plaque Formation
A soft, sticky layer called plaque forms on teeth and gums due to bacteria acting on
food particles.
Plaque traps acid and bacteria near the tooth surface, accelerating decay.
It can also damage the gums and the fibres that hold teeth in place, causing loosening
of teeth.
🔹 Consequences of Tooth Decay
Cavities (holes in the teeth)
Pain and sensitivity
Loose teeth
Tooth loss
✅ Tips to Prevent Tooth Decay
Tip Reason
🪥 Brush twice daily Removes food particles and plaque
💧 Rinse mouth after every meal Washes away food and sugar
🔁 Replace toothbrush when bristles wear Old brushes are less effective
out
🙅♂️Don't share your toothbrush Prevents infection and cross-contamination
🧴 Use fluoride toothpaste Fluoride strengthens enamel and resists acid
attack
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🍫 Limit sugary foods (chocolates, pastries) Reduces food for bacteria
🥤 Avoid aerated drinks They are acidic and damage enamel
🦷 Get regular dental checkups Early detection and prevention of decay
👅 Tongue
The tongue plays multiple roles:
Mixes food with saliva
Pushes food toward the oesophagus
Helps in swallowing the food (forming a bolus)
Tastes food using taste buds that detect:
o Sweet
o Sour
o Salty
o Bitter
Assists in speech
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Elephant tusks are actually elongated incisors.
The mesentery is a newly discovered organ that connects intestines to the abdomen.
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🟪 Stomach: Structure and Functions
🔸 Structure of the Stomach
The stomach is a J-shaped, muscular, elastic sac located on the left side of the
abdomen.
It is the widest part of the alimentary canal.
It lies between the oesophagus and the small intestine.
The stomach can hold up to 2 litres of food at a time.
🔸 Secretions of the Stomach: The inner lining of the stomach contains gastric glands
that secrete:
1. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
o Kills harmful microorganisms in food.
o Provides an acidic medium for the enzyme pepsin to work effectively.
2. Pepsin (enzyme)
o Begins the digestion of proteins by breaking them into simpler substances
(peptides).
3. Mucus
o Protects the stomach lining from being digested by its own acid and enzymes.
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🕒 Storage Stores food for a few minutes to several hours
➡ Transfer Sends partially digested food to the small intestine
🔹 Summary
Component Role
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Kills germs, activates pepsin, creates acidic medium
Pepsin Digests proteins
Mucus Protects stomach walls from acid and enzymes
Muscle Movements Churns food for mixing
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oThe gastric juices play a key role in breaking down food for nutrient
absorption.
📌 6. Scientific Significance
Dr. Beaumont’s work laid the foundation for modern digestive physiology.
Alexis St Martin is known as the “man with a window into his stomach”.
This story is considered a milestone in medical science.
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This nutrient transport into the blood is called absorption.
Once absorbed, the nutrients are carried by blood to all body cells – this process is
called assimilation.
📌 6. Fun Fact
Vitamins and minerals do not need digestion. They are absorbed by the small intestine in
their original form.
🔬 Assimilation of Food
1. Definition:
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The process of utilizing absorbed nutrients by body cells for various functions.
o
2. Main Processes in Assimilation:
o Glucose → Broken down in cells (with oxygen) → Carbon dioxide + Water +
Energy (via cellular respiration).
o Amino acids → Used to build and repair body tissues (proteins).
o Fatty acids + Glycerol → Used to build cell components or stored under skin
as energy reserves.
3. Special Note:
o Vitamins and minerals don’t need digestion and are absorbed as they are.
🧾 Additional Notes:
Undigested food: Passes from small intestine → large intestine.
Vermiform appendix: A vestigial organ near the start of the large intestine. A small,
tube-like structure attached to the large intestine. Vestigial organ: An organ that no longer
performs its original function, often due to evolutionary changes. In humans, the
appendix once helped in digesting cellulose (in ancestral plant-based diets), but is
no longer needed for this function.
Saliva (from salivary glands in the mouth): Begins starch digestion but not related to
absorption in the small intestine.
🚽 Egestion
The process of removing undigested solid waste from the body is called egestion.
It is the final stage of the digestive process.
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Salivary Glands: Produce 1–2 litres of saliva each day.
Small Intestine: In women, it is longer than in men.
Digestive System Length: If stretched out, it would be 29 feet long.
Stomach Growling Sound: It's called borborygmi.
The digestive system of a sloth is just as slow as the animal itself. It can take up to a
month for a sloth to digest a single meal. This extremely slow digestion is due to:
o A low metabolic rate.
o A complex, multi-chambered stomach that slowly ferments plant material.
Sloths rely on symbiotic bacteria to break down leaves, which are hard to digest and
low in nutrients. Because of their slow digestion, sloths defecate only about once a
week, which is a risky event for them as they have to come down from trees.
Digestive Glands
🧠 Salivary Glands
There are three pairs of salivary glands: parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands.
These glands are located in and around the mouth and open into the oral cavity through
small ducts.
They secrete saliva, a watery fluid that contains:
o Amylase enzyme (ptyalin) – begins digestion by breaking down starch into
simple sugars (maltose).
o Mucus – helps in lubricating the food for easier swallowing.
o Water – dissolves food particles and aids in taste perception.
o Lysozyme – an antibacterial enzyme that helps kill harmful microbes.
Saliva also helps in:
o Cleansing the mouth and maintaining oral hygiene.
o Forming the food bolus, making it easier to swallow.
On average, 1–2 litres of saliva are produced daily (as per the fun fact from your
image).
Saliva production can increase when we smell or think about food, a reflex controlled by
the nervous system.
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📌 Bile Juice
Liver secretes bile juice, which:
o Is stored in the gall bladder, a sac-like structure under the liver.
o Is not an enzyme, but helps in digestion.
Function of bile juice:
o Breaks down large fat molecules into tiny droplets (called emulsification).
o Makes it easier for enzymes to digest fats in the small intestine.
🧪 Role in Digestion
Bile emulsifies fat, but does not chemically digest food.
Helps prepare fats for chemical digestion by enzymes like those in pancreatic juice.
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Amylase → Starch → Simple sugars (e.g., glucose)
o
Trypsin / Other proteases → Proteins → Amino acids
o
Lipase (works best after bile emulsification) → Fats → Fatty acids + Glycerol
o
Alkaline bicarbonate neutralises acidic chyme arriving from the stomach,
o
creating an optimal pH (~7.8) for enzyme action.
4. Hormonal Role (Endocrine)
o Insulin: Lowers blood-glucose by promoting uptake of glucose into cells and
storage as glycogen.
o Glucagon: Raises blood-glucose by stimulating conversion of liver glycogen
back to glucose (not detailed in your notes but completes the picture).
5. Overall Contribution to Digestion
o Completes the breakdown of all three macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins,
fats).
o Works in concert with bile from the liver (emulsifies fats) and intestinal juice
(finishing digestion).
6. Clinical Note
o Pancreatic insufficiency (failure to produce enough enzymes) leads to
malabsorption and nutrient loss.
o Insulin deficiency causes diabetes mellitus, highlighting the pancreas’s vital
endocrine role.
Digestion in Humans
1. Human digestion involves the alimentary canal and associated glands like the liver and
pancreas.
2. Digestive juices contain enzymes that break down complex food into simpler forms.
3. Digestion starts in the mouth and ends in the small intestine, where nutrients are
absorbed.
Supporting Organs
Salivary glands: Help in moistening the food.
Liver & Pancreas: Secrete digestive juices aiding in digestion.
Caecum: A part of the large intestine; involved in cellulose fermentation.
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Why Do We Get Hiccups?
1. Windpipe (Trachea): Carries air from the nostrils to the lungs.
2. Food Pipe (Oesophagus): Carries food from the mouth to the stomach.
3. The windpipe and food pipe lie next to each other in the body.
4. In the throat, air and food share a common passage.
5. To prevent food from entering the windpipe:
o A flat cartilage flap called epiglottis covers the windpipe while swallowing.
o This ensures that food passes safely into the food pipe.
6. However, if we:
o Eat too quickly,
o Talk while eating, or
o Laugh during eating,
o Then the epiglottis may not close properly, and the windpipe may remain
slightly open.
7. As a result, food particles can enter the windpipe, causing:
o Hiccups, or
o A choking sensation.
8. Hiccups produce a repeated ‘gulping’ sound.
9. Hiccups are called ‘hichki’ in Hindi.
10. The blockage in the windpipe is usually cleared by coughing.
Diarrhoea
1. Definition: Diarrhoea is a condition in which a person passes watery stools
frequently.
2. Hindi Term: Diarrhoea is called ‘dast’ in Hindi.
3. Causes of Diarrhoea:
o Infection by disease-causing microorganisms.
o Food poisoning.
o Indigestion.
4. Prevalence:
o Very common in India, especially among children.
o One of the leading causes of death in small children in India.
5. Effect on the Body:
o Leads to loss of water and salts from the body.
o This condition is called dehydration.
6. Danger of Dehydration:
o Causes a person to become dangerously ill very quickly.
o Severe dehydration can even lead to death.
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Therefore, diarrhoea should never be neglected.
o
7. Treatment - ORS (Oral Rehydration Solution):
o To prevent dehydration, the patient should be given ORS many times a day.
o ORS is a solution of sugar and salt in clean water.
o ORS replaces lost fluids and salts, and sugar provides energy.
o A simple ORS can be made at home by:
Mixing 1 teaspoon of sugar and a pinch of salt in 1 glass of clean
(boiled and cooled) water.
8. Medical Attention: While giving ORS, a doctor should be consulted to treat the
underlying cause of diarrhoea.
7. Defecation
o The process of egestion, i.e., the removal of undigested and unabsorbed food
from the body.
o It occurs through the anus at the end of the digestive process.
8. Ruminants
o Herbivorous animals (like cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, deer) that chew
partially digested food (called cud) after bringing it back from the stomach to
the mouth.
o They have a four-chambered stomach and perform a special digestion process
called rumination.
9. Plaque
o A soft, sticky substance that forms on teeth (often due to food particles and
bacteria).
10. Tooth Decay
o The destruction of teeth, often caused by plaque and poor dental hygiene.
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