Theory of Transformer on load and no load

operation
We have discussed about theory of Ideal Transformer for better understanding of actual elementary
theory of transformer. Now we will go through one by one practical aspects of an electrical power
transformer and try to draw vector diagram of transformer in every step. As we said that in ideal
transformer there are no core losses in transformer i.e. loss free core of transformer. But in practical
transformer there are hysteresis and eddy current losses in transformer core.

Theory of transformer on no-load, and having no winding resistance and no

leakage reactance of transformer
Let us consider one electrical transformer with only core losses. That means the it has only core losses
but no copper loss and no leakage reactance of transformer. When an alternating source is applied in
the primary, the source will supply the electric current for magnetizing the core of transformer. But this
current is not the actual magnetizing current, little bit greater than actual magnetizing current. Actually
total electric current supplied from the source has two components one is magnetizing current which is
merely utilized for magnetizing the core and other component of the source current, is consumed for
compensating the core losses in transformer. Because of this core loss component, the source current in
transformer on no-load condition, supplied from the source as source current is not exactly at 90 o lags
of supply voltage but it lags behind an angle θ is less than 90 o.

If total electric current supplied from source is I o, it will have one component in phase with supply
voltage V1 and this component of the current I w is core loss component. This component is taken in
phase with source voltage, because it is associated with active or working losses in transformer. Other
component of the source current is denoted as I μ.

This component produces the alternating magnetic flux in the core, so it is watt-less means it is reactive
part of the transformer source current.

Hence Iμ will be in quadrature with V1 and in phase with alternating flux Φ.

Hence, total primary current in transformer on no-load condition can be represented as

Io = I μ + I w

and,

|Iμ| = |Io|cosθ
|Iw| = |Io|sinθ

|Io| = ( |Iμ|2 + |Iw|2 )1/2

Now you have seen how simple to explain the theory of transformer in no-load.

Theory of transformer on load but having no winding resistance and leakage

reactance
Now we will examine the behavior of above said transformer on load, that means load is connected to
the secondary terminals. Consider, transformer having core loss but no copper loss and leakage
reactance. Whenever load is connected to the secondary winding, load current will start to flow through
the load as well as secondary winding. This load current solely depends upon the characteristics of the
load and also upon upon secondary voltage of the transformer. This current is called secondary current
or load current, here it is denoted as I 2. As I2 is flowing through the secondary, a self mmf in secondary
winding will be produced. Here it is N 2I2, where, N2 is the number of turns of the secondary winding of
transformer.
This mmf or magneto motive force in the secondary winding produces flux φ 2. This φ2 will oppose the
main magnetizing flux and momentarily weakens the main flux and tries to reduce primary self-induced
emf E1. If E1 falls down below the primary source voltage V 1, there will be an extra current flows from
source to primary winding. This extra primary current I 2′ produces extra flux φ′ in the core which will
neutralized the secondary counter flux φ 2. Hence the main magnetizing flux of core, Φ remains
unchanged irrespective of load.

So total current, this transformer draws from source can be divided into two components, first one is
utilized for magnetizing the core and compensate the core loss i.e. I o. It is, no-load component of the
primary current. Second one is utilized for compensating the counter flux of the secondary winding. It is
known as load component of the primary current.
Hence total no load primary current I 1 of a transformer having no winding resistance and leakage
reactance can be represented as follows

I1 = Io + I2′

Where θ2 is the angle between Secondary Voltage and Secondary Current of transformer.

Now we will proceed one further step toward more practical aspect of a transformer.

Theory of transformer on load, with resistive winding, but no leakage reactance

Now, consider the winding resistance of transformer but no leakage reactance. So far we have discussed
about the transformer which has ideal windings means winding with no resistance and leakage
reactance, but now we will consider one transformer which has internal resistance in the winding but no
leakage reactance. As the windings are resistive, there would be a voltage drop in the windings.

We have proved earlier that total primary current from the source on load is I 1. The voltage drop in the
primary winding with resistance, R1 is R1I1. Obviously induced emf across primary winding E 1, is not
exactly equal to source voltage V1. E1 is less than V1 by voltage drop I1R1.

V1 = E1 + I1R1

Again in the case of secondary, the voltage induced across the secondary winding, E 2 does not totally
appear across the load since it also drops by an amount I 2R2, where R2 is the secondary winding
resistance and I2 is secondary current or load current.

Similarly voltage equation of the secondary side of the transformer will be

V2 = E2 − I2R2

Theory of transformer on load, with resistance as well as leakage reactance in

transformer windings
Now we will consider the condition , when there is leakage reactance of transformer as well as winding
resistance of transformer.
Let leakage reactances of primary and secondary windings of the transformer are X 1 and X2 respectively.

Hence total impedance of primary and secondary winding with resistance R 1 and R2 respectively, can be
represented as,

Z1 = R1 + jX1 (impedance of primary winding)

Z2 = R2 + jX2 (impedance of secondary winding)

We have already established the voltage equation of a transformer on load, with only resistances in the
windings; where voltage drops in the windings occur only due to resistive voltage drop. But when we
consider leakage reactance of transformer windings, voltage drop occurs in the winding not only
because of resistance, it is because of impedance of transformer windings. Hence, actual voltage
equation of a transformer can easily be determined by just replacing resistances R 1 & R2 in the
previously established voltage equations by Z1 and Z2.

Therefore, the voltage equations are,

V1 = E1 + I1Z1 & V2 = E2 − I2Z2

V1 = E1 + I1(R1 + jX1) ⇒ V1 = E1 + I1R1 + jI1X1

V2 = E2 – I2(R2 + jX2) ⇒ V2 = E2 – I2R2 − jI2X2

Resistance drops are in the direction of current vector but reactive drop will be in perpendicular to the
current vector as shown in the above vector diagram of transformer.
 EMF Equation of Transformer | Turns Voltage
Transformation Ratio of Transformer
EMF Equation of transformer can be established in very easy way. Actually in electrical power
transformer, one alternating electrical source is applied to the primary winding and due to this,
magnetizing current flows through the primary which produces alternating flux in the core of
transformer. This flux links with both primary and secondary windings. As this flux is alternating in
nature there must be a rate of change of flux. According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction if
any coil or conductor links with any changing flux, there must be an induced emf in it. As the electric
current source to primary, is sinusoidal, the flux induced by it will be also sinusoidal. Hence the function
of flux may be considered as a sine function. Mathematically derivative of that function will give a
function for rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time. This later function will be a cosine
function since d(sinθ)/dt = cosθ. So if we derive the expression for rms value of this cosine wave and
multiply it with number of turns of the winding we will easily get the expression for rms value of induced
emf of that winding. In this way we can easily derive the emf equation of transformer.

Let, T is number of turns in a winding,

Φm is the maximum flux in the core in Wb.

As per Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic Induction,

emf, e = − T.dφ/dt

Where φ is the instantaneous alternating flux and represented as,

φ = Φmsin2πft

Hence, e = d(Φmsin2πft)/dt

⇒ e = − TΦm cos2πft X 2πf

⇒ e = − TΦm2πf cos2πft

As the maximum value of cos2πft is 1, the maximum value of induced emf e is,

em = T Φm2πf

To obtain the rms value of induced counter emf, divide this maximum value of e by √2.

Then, E = 2π/√2 X ΦmfT    Volts

⇒ E = 4.44ΦmfT    Volts  (Since, 2π/√2 = 4.44)

This is EMF equation of transformer

If E1 & E2 are primary and secondary emfs and T1 & T2 are primary and secondary emfs then, voltage
ratio or turns ratio of transformer is,

E1 / E2 = 4.44ΦmfT1 / 4.44ΦmfT2 = T1 / T2

⇒ E1 / E2 = T1 / T2

Transformation Ratio of Transformer

This constant is called transformation ratio of transformer, if T2>T1, K>1, then the transformer is step up
transformer. If T2<T1, K<1, then the transformer is step down transformer.

Voltage Ratio of Transformer

This above said ratio is also known as voltage ratio of transformer if it is expressed as ratio of the
primary and secondary voltages of transformer.

Turns Ratio of Transformer

As the voltages in primary and secondary of transformer is directly proportional to number of turns in
the respective winding, the transformation ratio of transformer is sometime expressed in ratio of turns
and referred as turns ratio of transformer

Resistance & Leakage Reactance or Impedance

of Transformer
All the flux in transformer will not be able to link with both the primary and secondary windings. A small
portion of flux will link either winding but not both. This portion of flux is called leakage flux. Due to this
leakage flux in transformer there will be a self – reactance in the concerned winding. This self-reactance
of transformer is alternatively known as leakage reactance of transformer. This self – reactance
associated with resistance of transformer is impedance. Due to this impedance of transformer there will
be voltage drops in both primary and secondary transformer windings.

Resistance of Transformer
Generally both primary and secondary windings of electrical power transformer are made of copper.
Copper is very good conductor of electric current but not a super conductor. Actually super conductor
and super conductivity both are conceptual, practically they are not available. So both windings will
have some resistance. These internal resistances of both primary and secondary windings are
collectively known as resistance of transformer.

Impedance of Transformer
As we said, both primary and secondary windings will have resistance and leakage reactance. These
resistance and reactance will be in combination is nothing but impedance of transformer. If R1 & R2 and
X1 & X2 are primary & secondary resistance &amp leakage reactance of transformer respectively, then
Z1 & Z2 impedance of primary & secondary windings are respectively,

Z1 = R1 &plus; jX1

Z2 = R2 &plus; jX2

The Impedance of transformer plays a vital role during parallel operation of transformer

Leakage Flux in transformer

In ideal transformer all the flux will link with both primary and secondary winding but in reality it is
impossible to link all the flux in transformer with both primary and secondary windings. Although
maximum flux will link with both winding through the core of transformer but still there will be a small
amount of flux which will link either winding not both. This flux is called leakage flux which will pass
through the winding insulation and transformer insulating oil instead of passing through core. Due to
this leakage flux in transformer, both primary and secondary winding have leakage reactance. These
reactance of transformer is nothing but leakage reactance of transformer. This phenomena in
transformer is known as Magnetic Leakage.
Voltage drops in the windings occur due to impedance of transformer. Impedance is combination of
resistance and leakage reactance of transformer. If we apply voltage V1 across primary of transformer,
there will be a component I1X1 to balance primary self induced emf due to primary leakage reactance.
(Here, X1 is primary leakage reactance). Now if we also consider voltage drop due to primary resistance
of transformer, then voltage equation of a transformer can easily be written as,

V1 = E1 &plus; I1(R1 &plus; jX1) ⇒ V1 = E1 &plus; I1R1 &plus; jI1X1

Similarly for secondary leakage reactance, the voltage equation of secondary side is,

V2 = E2 – I2(R2 &plus; jX2) ⇒ V2 = E2 – I2R2 − jI2X2

Here in the figure above, the primary and secondary windings are shown in separate limbs and this
arrangement could result a large leakage flux in transformer as because there is a big room for leakage.
Leakage in primary and secondary could be eliminated it the windings could be made to occupy the
same space. This of course is physically impossible but by placing secondary and primary in concentric
manner can solve the problem in good extent.
 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer referred to
Primary and Secondary

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Equivalent impedance of Transformer is essential to be calculated as because the electrical power
transformer is an electrical power system equipment so for estimating different parameters of electrical
power system it may be required to calculate total internal impedance of an electrical power
transformer viewing from primary side or secondary side as per requirement. This calculation requires
equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary or equivalent circuit of transformer referred to
secondary sides respectively. Percentage impedance is also very essential parameter of transformer.
Special attention is to be given to this parameter during installing a transformer in an existing electrical
power system. Percentage impedance of different power transformers should be properly matched
during parallel operation of these transformers. The percentage impedance can be derived from
equivalent impedance of transformer so it can be said that equivalent circuit of transformer is also
required during calculation of % impedance.

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer referred to Primary

For drawing equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary, first we have to establish general
equivalent circuit of transformer then we will modify it for referring from primary side. For doing this
we first recall the complete vector diagram of a transformer which is shown in the figure below.
Let us consider the transformation ratio be,

K = N1/N2 = E1/E2

In the figure right,

the applied voltage to the primary is V 1 and voltage across the the primary winding is E 1. Total electric
current supplied to primary is I1. So the voltage V1 applied to the primary, is partly dropped by I 1Z1 or I1R1
+ j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding. The voltage appeared across winding is countered by
primary induced emf E1. So voltage equation of this portion of the transformer can be written as

V1 – (I1R1 + j.I1X1) = E1

The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,

From the vector diagram above it is found that total primary current I 1 has two components one is no –
load component Io and other is load component I2′. As this primary current has two components or
branches so there must be a parallel path with primary winding of transformer. This parallel path of
electric current is known as excitation branch of equivalent circuit of transformer. The resistive and
reactive branches of the excitation circuit can be represented as
Ro = E1 / Iw and Xo = E1 / Iμ.

The load component I2′ flows through the primary winding of transformer and induced voltage across
the winding is E1 as shown in the figure right. This induced voltage E 1 transforms to secondary and it is E2
and load component of primary current I 2′ is transformed to secondary as secondary current I 2. Current
of secondary is I2. So the voltage E2 across secondary winding, is partly dropped by I 2Z2 or I2R2 + j.I2X2
before it appears across load. The load voltage is V 2.
The complete equivalent circuit of transformer is shown below.

Now if we see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side then it would be ′K′ times greater and
would be written as K.Z2.I2.
Again I2′.N1 = I2.N2

⇒ I2 = I2′.N1 / N2

⇒ I2 = K.I2′
Therefore,
K.Z2.I2 = K.Z2.K.I2′

= K2.Z2.I2′

From above equation,

Secondary impedance of transformer referred to primary is, Z 2′ = K2.Z2

Hence, R2′ = K2.R2
and X2′ = K2.X2
So The complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is shown in the figure below,

Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Since Io is very small compared to I1, it is less than 5% of full load primary current, I o changes the voltage
drop insignificantly. Hence, it is good approximation to ignore the excitation circuit in approximate
equivalent circuit of transformer. The winding resistance and reactance being in series can now be
combined into equivalent resistance and reactance of transformer referred to any particular side. In this
case it is side 1 or primary side. Here V2′ = K.V2

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer referred to Secondary

In similar way approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary can be drawn.

Where, equivalent impedance of transformer referred to secondary, can be derived as

Z1′ = Z1 / K2

Therefore,

R1′ = R1 / K2 and

X1′ = X1 / K2

Here, V1′ = V1 / K
Voltage Regulation of Transformer
Definition
The voltage regulation is the percentage of voltage difference between no load and full load voltages of
a transformer with respect to its full load voltage.

Explanation of Voltage Regulation of Transformer

Say a electrical power transformer is open circuited means load is not connected with secondary
terminals. In this situation the secondary terminal voltage of the transformer will be its secondary
induced emf E2. Whenever full load is connected to the secondary terminals of the transformer, rated
current I2 flows through the secondary circuit and voltage drops comes into picture. At this situation,
primary winding will also draw equivalent full load current from source. The voltage drop in the
secondary is I2Z2 where Z2 is the secondary impedance of transformer. If now, at this loading condition
any one measures the voltage between secondary terminals, he or she will get voltage V 2 across load
terminals which is obviously less than no load secondary voltage E 2 and this is because of I2Z2 voltage
drop in the transformer.

Expression of Voltage Regulation of transformer

Expression of Voltage Regulation of Transformer, represented in percentage, is

Voltage Regulation of Transformer for lagging Power Factor

Now we will derive the expression of voltage regulation in detail, say lagging Power Factor of the load is
cosθ2, that means angle between secondary current and voltage is θ 2
Here, from the above diagram,

OC = OA &plus; AB &plus; BC

Here, OA = V2

Here, AB = AEcosθ2 = I2R2cosθ2

and, BC = DEsinθ2 = I2X2sinθ2

Angle between OC & OD may be very small so it can be neglected and OD is considered nearly equal to
OC i.e.

E2 = OC = OA &plus; AB &plus; BC

E2 = OC = V2 &plus; I2R2cosθ2 &plus; I2X2sinθ2 …………………1

Voltage Regulation of transformer at lagging power factor,

Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Leading Power Factor

Let’s derive the expression of voltage regulation with leading current, say leading Power Factor of the
load is cosθ2, that means angle between secondary current and voltage is θ 2
Here, from the above diagram,

OC = OA &plus; AB − BC

Here, OA = V2

Here, AB = AEcosθ2 = I2R2cosθ2

and, BC = DEsinθ2 = I2X2sinθ2

Angle between OC & OD may be very small so it can be neglected and OD is considered nearly equal to
OC i.e.

E2 = OC = OA &plus; AB − BC

E2 = OC = V2 &plus; I2R2cosθ2 − I2X2sinθ2 …………………2

Voltage Regulation of transformer at leading power factor,