Electronic Devices and Circuits (Formula Notes)

Thermal Voltage: VT (Voltage Equivalent of Temperature)

T
VT  volt
11600

Leakage Current (I o )
 Also called minority carrier current or thermally generated current.
 In silicon it is in nano ampere range and in germanium 10is in micro ampere
  it 

range.
 Io doubles for every 10ºC. For 1ºC, Io increases by 7%.
 Io is proportional to the area of the device.
 Advantages of smaller Io:
(i) Suitable for high temperature applications
(ii) Good Thermal stability
(iii) No false triggering

Energy Gap: Difference between the lower energy level of conduction band (CB)
E C and upper energy level of valance band (VB) E v is called as energy gap.
Metals: VB and CB are overlap to each other.
 This overlapping increases with temperature.

 e is both in CB and VB.
Insulators: Conduction band is always empty. Hence no current passes.
Band gap: 5 eV – 15 eV.
Semiconductor: Energy gap is small and it is in range of 1 eV.
 At room temperature current can pass through a semi conductor.
Energy Gap Ge Si Ga As
Eg T  0 7.85 eV 1.21 eV XX
Eg T  300 K 0.72 eV 1.1 eV 1.47 eV
Energy gap at temperature T
For Ge Eg(T)  0.785  7.2 104 T
For Si Eg(T) 1.21 3.6104 T
Energy gap decreases with temperature.
 dv volt
Electric Field Intensity 
dx meter
drift velocity v m2
Mobility of charge carriers  
electric field intensity  sec

Mobility Vs  curve
 < 10 3
  constant
10 3    10 4     1/ 2
1
  10 4 

So drift velocity: V d   Vd   1/ 2 Vd  constant
 Mobility indicates how quick is the e  or hole moving from one place to
another.
 Electron mobility > hole mobility
 Mobility of charge carriers decreases with the temperature.
  T m
Mass Action Law: In a semi conductor under thermal equilibrium (at constant
temperature) the product of electrons and holes in a semiconductor is always
constant and equal to the square of intrinsic concentration.
[no po  ni2 ]
no  Concentration of e  in conduction band
Po  Concentration of holes in valance band
ni  Intrinsic concentration at given temperature
ni2
Majority carrier concentration =
Minority carrier concentration
Eg

Intrinsic concentration ni2  AoT 3e 2 KT

ni is a function of temperature and energy gap.

Einstein’s Equation: Relation between diffusion constant, mobility and thermal
voltage.
Dn D P
  VT  KT
n  P
D n  e  diffusion constant
D
The unit of is volts. Where,
 D p  Hole diffusion constant
Diffusion and Drift Current:
Diffusion Current: It is defined as migration of charge carriers from higher
concentration to lower concentration due to concentration gradient.
Drift Current: It is flow of current through the material or device under the
influence of voltage or electric field intensity.
Total current density in a semi conductor

J  Jn  Jp
  

(Total current) (Current carried by e ) (Current carried by holes)
Jn  Jn  Jn
  
current due to e 
e drift current density 
e diffusion current density
dn
For e  J n  nqn  qDn A / cm 2
dx
dp
For holes J p  pq p  qDp A / cm2
dx
e – diffusion length Ln  Dn cm

Hole diffusion length LP  DP  cm

 Conductivity
In Metals: Metals are uni-polar, so current is carried only by e 
  nqn
In metal, conductivity decreases with temperature.
In Semi Conductors   nqn  pq P
n  Concentration of e  in CB
e  Concentration of holes in VB
 n ,  p  Mobility of holes and electrons
 Conductivity of pure semi-conductor increases with temperature

In Extrinsic Semi-conductor
For n type   N D qn ND = donor concentration
For p type   N A q p NA = acceptor concentration
In extrinsic semiconductor (SC) below the room temperature, conductivity
increases. But above the room temperature their conductivity decreases.

Periodic Table:
III IV V
B C N
Al Si P
Ga Ge As
In Sn Sb

¾ e = 1.602 ×10−19 C, m = 9.1×10−31 kg , ‘F’ force on electron in uniform electric field ‘E’
eE
¾ F=eE; acceleration a =
m
¾ If electron with velocity ' v ' moves in field ' E ' making an angle 'θ ' can be
resolved to v sin θ , v cos θ .
¾ Effect of Magnetic Field ‘B’ on Electron.
mv 2π m
¾ When B & Q are perpendicular path is circular r = ; Period ' t ' =
Be Be
¾ When slant with 'θ ' path is # Helical.
¾ EQUATIONS OF CRT
lL
¾ ELECTROSTATIC DEFLECTION SENSITIVITY Se =
2dVa
e
¾ MAGNETIC DEFLECTION SENSITIVITY S m = lL
2mVa
2eV
¾ Velocity due to voltage V, v =
m
¾ When E and B are perpendicular and initial velocity of electron is zero, the path is
u
Cycloidal in plane perpendicular to B & E. Diameter of Cycloid=2Q, where Q= ,
ω
E Be
u= , ω= .
B m

¾ Si , Ge have 4 electrons in covalent bands. Valency of 4. Doping with trivalent

elements makes ' p ' , Pentavalent elements makes ' n ' semiconductor.

¾ Conductivity σ = e ( n μn + p μ p ) where n, p are concentrations of Dopants.

μn & μ p are mobility’s of electron and hole respectively.

Diode equation

⎛ Vd ⎞
I d = I s ⎜ e nVT − 1⎟
⎝ ⎠
kT
VT = ; K= Boltzman Constant
q

ΔVd VT kT ⎛ N A N P ⎞
¾ rd = = ; Vo = ln ⎜ ⎟
ΔI d I q ⎝ ni 2 ⎠

¾ T = 00 C + 273; q = 1.602 × 10−19 C

0 0
¾ Diode drop changes @ 2.2mv / C , Leakage current I s doubles on 10 C

dq
¾ Diffusion capacitance is cd = of forward biased diode it is ∝ I
dv
−n
¾ Transition capacitance CT is capacitance of reverse biased diode ∝V n = 1 to 1
2 3
¾ ZENER DIODE FWD Bias Normal
si Diode 0.7 V Drop
Reverse Bias
Zener drop = Vz forV > Vz
-3-

¾ ZENER REGULATOR

Vi − Vz
¾ Is = ;Vi >> Vz
Rs

ΔVz
¾ rz =
ΔI z

¾ TUNNEL DIODE

¾ Conducts in
f , r , Quantum mechanical tunneling in region a-0-b-c.
b b
¾ -ve resistance b-c, normal diode c-d.
I p = peak current, I v = valley current; v p =peak voltage ≈ 65 mV, vv =valley voltage
0.35 V. Heavy Doping, Narrow Junction , Used for switching & HF oscillators.

¾ VARACTOR DIODE

Used in reverse bias & as tuning variable capacitance.

K Co
¾ CT = ; n=0.3 for diffusion, n=0.5 for alloy junction, CT =
(VT + VR )
n n
⎛1 + VR ⎞
⎜ VT ⎟⎠
⎝
CB 1
¾ is figure of merit, Self resonance f o =
C25 2π LS CT
¾ PHOTO DIODES

-4-

¾ Diode used in reverse bias for light detection.

¾ Different materials have individual peak response to a range of wave lengths.

¾ BJT, Bipolar Junction Transistor has 2 Junctions: BE, BC

I nE I
¾ Components of current are I nE , I pE at EB junction where γ = = nE
I nE + I pE I E
I nc
¾ γ = Emitter efficiency, β * = transportation factor.
I nE

¾ BE = f / b; BC = r / b

Ie = Ib + Ic
Ic I
α= ;β = c
Ie Ib
Doping Emitter Highest
Base Lowest
Ie > I c > Ib

¾ Leakage currents : I CBO , I CEO , I EBO

¾ I CEO = (1 + β ) I CBO
¾ 3 Configurations are used on BJT, CE, CB & CC

¾
¾ Common Emitter, VI characteristics

IC
β = VCE
IB

ΔVBE ΔV
¾ Ri = hie = = β re ; rce = r0 = ce
ΔI B ΔI c

AMPLIFIER COMPARISON

COMPARISON
CB CE CF

BE BC
Ri LOW MED HIGH

SATURATION f/b f/b

AI AI β β +1
ACTIVE f/b r/b
AV High High <1

CUT OFF r/b r/b

Ro High High low

¾ FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR, FET is Unipolar Device

Construction n-Channel p-Channel

¾ S=Source, G=Gate, D=Drain

¾ GS Junction in Reverse Bias Always
¾ Vgs Controls Gate Width
¾ MOSFET: Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET, IGFET

Depletion Type Mosfet Symbols Enhancement Mosfet

¾ Depletion Type MOSFET can work width Vgs > 0 and Vgs < 0

MOSFET JPET

High Ri = 10 −108
10

R0 = 50 kΩ ≥ 1mΩ

Depletion Depletion
Enhancement Mode Mode
Transfer Forward
Delicate Rugged
Characteristics Characteristics

¾ Enhancement MOSFET operates with, Vgs > Vt , Vt = Threshold Voltage

Forward Characteristics Transfer Characteristics

VDS ( sat ) = VGS − VT , I ds (ON ) = K (VGS −VT )

2

JFET I D Table COMPARISIONS

Vgs ID BJT FET

0 I DSS Current controlled Voltage controlled

0.3 VP I DSS High gain Med gain

2
Bipolar Unipolar
0.5 VP I DSS
4 Temp sensitive Little effect of T
VP 0 High GBWP Low GBWP